The General Electric GE38 is a gas turbine developed by GE Aviation for turboprop and turboshaft applications. The GE27 was developed in the early 1980s under the “Modern Technology Demonstrator Engines” (MTDE) program sponsored by the United States Army Aviation Applied Technology Directorate. The GE27 was GE’s unsuccessful submission to power the Bell-Boeing V-22 Osprey. The CFE CFE738 is based on this engine.
In the late 1980s, GE used the GE27 as the basis for its GE38 commercial engine development. The GE38 became the T407 turboprop in partnership with Lycoming Engines for the Lockheed P-7, with a maximum takeoff power of 6,000 shp (4,475 kW). The P-7 program was canceled in 1990, as was the engine. The commercial version of the T407 was the GLC38, which was unsuccessfully offered for several turboprop airliners in the early 1990s.
The new GE38-1B is slated to power the new Sikorsky CH-53K Super Stallion three-engined helicopter for the US Marine Corps. It has a power rating of 7,500 shp. The GE38 completed its first round of ground testing in May 2010. Two test engines had completed over 1,000 hours of ground testing by November 2011. Five test engines were to be used in the 5,000-hour test program. GE is also hoped to offer the engine to power the US Navy’s Ship-to-Shore Connector Air-cushioned landing craft.
Variants and applications:
T407 Lockheed P-7
GE38-1B Sikorsky CH-53K
CPX38 Proposed turboprop engine variant
Specifications Type: Turboprop / Turboshaft Length: 57.5 inches (79.5 in with Torque Tube) Diameter: 27 in Dry weight: 1104.7 lb Compressor: 5+1 Axi-Centrifugal Compressor (5 Axial stages and 1 Centrifugal stage) Turbine: a 3-Stage Power Turbine, a 2-Stage-Single Crystal Cooled HP Turbine Oil system: synthetic Maximum power output: 7,500 shp Overall pressure ratio: 18.6:1 OPR Power-to-weight ratio: 6.8 shp/lb
The General Electric F404, F412, and RM12 are a family of afterburning turbofan engines in the 10,500–19,000 lbf (47–85 kN) class (static thrust), first run in 1978. The series are produced by GE Aviation. Partners include Volvo Aero, which builds the RM12 variant. The F404 was developed into the larger F414 turbofan, as well as the experimental GE36 civil propfan.
GE developed the F404 for the F/A-18 Hornet, shortly after losing the competition for the F-15 Eagle’s engine to Pratt & Whitney, and losing the Lightweight Fighter (LWF) competition to the P&W-F100 powered YF-16. For the F/A-18, GE based the F404 on the YJ101 engine they had developed for the Northrop YF-17, enlarging the bypass ratio from .20 to .34 to enable higher fuel economy. The engine was designed with a higher priority on reliability than performance. Cost was the main goal in the design of the engine.
GE also analyzed “throttle profiles” and found that pilots were changing throttle settings far more often than engineers previously expected; putting undue stress on the engines. GE also sought with the F404 a design that would avoid compressor stalls and other engine failures, and would respond quickly to control inputs; a common complaint of pilots converting from propeller planes to jets were that early turbojets were not responsive to changes in thrust input. GE executives Frederick A. Larson and Paul Setts also set the goal that the new engine would be smaller than the F-4’s GE J79, but provide at least as much thrust, and cost half as much as the P&W F100 engine for the F-16.
Due to a fan designed to smooth airflow before it enters the compressor, the F404 has high resistance to compressor stalls, even at high angles of attack. It requires less than two shop visits per 1,000 flight hours and averages 6,500 hours between in-flight events. It also demonstrates high responsiveness to control inputs, spooling from idle to full afterburner in 4 seconds. The engine contains an in-flight engine condition monitoring system (IECMS) that monitors for critical malfunctions and keeps track of parts lifetimes.
GE developed the F110 for the Air Force as an alternative to the Pratt & Whitney F100 for use on the F-16 and F-15 based on the F101 and used F404 technology. GE developed the F404-GE-402 in response to a Swiss requirement for more power in its F/A-18 version. The new engine version was used on Kuwaiti Hornets, later U.S. C and D Hornets, and subsequent Hornets.
The T-50 Golden Eagle uses a single General Electric F404-102 turbofan engine with Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) system. The engine consists of three-staged fans, seven axial stage arrangement, and an afterburner. The aircraft has a maximum speed of Mach 1.4. Its engine produces a maximum of 78.7 kN (17,700 lbf) of thrust with afterburner.
Almost 4,000 F404 engines powered the F/A-18 Hornets in service worldwide. The F404 engine family had totaled over 12 million flight hours by 2010.
GE 404
RM 12 The Volvo Aero modification to the F404 yielded increased performance, greater resistance to bird strikes and has improved reliability to meet single engine use safety criteria. 60% of the engine parts are produced by GE, then shipped to Sweden for final assembly. The fan/compressor discs and case, compressor spool, hubs, seals, and the entire afterburner are designed and produced in Sweden. Maximum thrust is 80.5/54 kN (wet/dry).
F412 GE developed the F404 into the F412-GE-400 non-afterburning turbofan for the A-12 Avenger II. After the cancellation of the A-12, the research was directed toward an engine for the Super Hornet, which evolved into the F414.
Applications:
F404 Boeing Phantom Ray Boeing X-45C FMA SAIA 90 (as designed, not built) Dassault Rafale A Grumman X-29 HAL Tejas Mk 1 Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk KAI T-50 Golden Eagle McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet Northrop F-20 Tigershark Rockwell-MBB X-31 ST Aerospace A-4SU Super Skyhawk
Volvo RM12 JAS 39 Gripen IAI Kfir-C2 Nammer (as designed, not built)
F412 McDonnell Douglas A-12 Avenger II (as designed, not built)
Specifications:
F404-GE-402 Type: Afterburning turbofan Length: 154 in (3,912 mm) Diameter: 35 in (889 mm) Dry weight: 2,282 lb (1,036 kg) Compressor: Axial compressor with 3 fan and 7 compressor stages Combustors: annular Turbine: 1 low-pressure and 1 high-pressure stage Maximum thrust: 11,000 lbf (48.9 kN) military thrust 17,700 lbf (78.7 kN) with afterburner Overall pressure ratio: 26:1 Bypass ratio: 0.34:1 Specific fuel consumption: Military thrust: 0.81 lb/(lbf·h) (82.6 kg/(kN·h)) Full afterburner: 1.74 lb/(lbf·h) (177.5 kg/(kN·h)) Thrust-to-weight ratio: 7.8:1 (76.0 N/kg)
The F118 is a non-afterburning derivative of the F110 specially developed for the B-2 Spirit stealth bomber. A single stage HP turbine drives the 9 stage HP compressor, whilst a 2 stage LP turbine drives the 3 stage fan. The combustor is annular. In 1998, the USAF’s Lockheed U-2 fleet was fitted with a modified version of the F118.
Variants:
F118-GE-100 Variant for the B-2
F118-GE-101 Variant for the U-2S
Specifications:
F118-100 Type: Two Spool Turbofan Length: 101 in (255 cm)[clarification needed] Diameter: 46.5 in (118 cm) Dry weight: 3200 lb (1452 kg) Compressor: Axial, 1 stage fan, 2 stage low pressure compressor, 9 stage high pressure compressor Combustors: Annular Turbine: 1 stage high pressure turbine, 2 stage low pressure turbine Maximum thrust: 19,000 lbf (84.5 kN) Overall pressure ratio: 35:1 Thrust-to-weight ratio: 5.9:1
After the successful development in the late 1960s of the TF39 for the C-5 Galaxy, GE offered a more powerful development for civilian use as the CF6, and quickly found interest in two designs being offered for a recent Eastern Airlines contract, the Lockheed L-1011 and McDonnell Douglas DC-10.
Although the L-1011 would eventually select the Rolls-Royce RB211, the DC-10 stuck with the CF6, and entered service in 1971. It was also selected for versions of the Boeing 747. Since then, the CF6 has powered versions of the Airbus A300, 310 and 330, Boeing 767, and McDonnell Douglas MD-11.
The NTSB issued warnings regarding the cracking of the high pressure compressor in 2000 and failure of the low pressure turbine rotor disks in 2010.
The basic engine core formed the basis for the LM2500, LM5000, and LM6000 marine and power generation turboshaft. GE intends to replace the CF6 family with the GEnx.
Variants:
CF6-6 This initial version of the CF6 comprises a single stage fan, with one core booster stage, driven by a 5-stage LP (low pressure) turbine, supercharging a 16-stage HP (high pressure) axial compressor driven by a 2-stage HP turbine; the combustor is annular; separate exhaust nozzles are used for the fan and core airflows. The 86.4 in (2.19 m) diameter fan generates an airflow of 1300 lb/s (590 kg/s), resulting in a relatively high bypass ratio of 5.72. The overall pressure ratio of the compression system is 24.3. At maximum take-off power, the engine develops a static thrust of 41,500 lb (185.05 kN).
A complete disintegration of a CF6-6 fan assembly resulted in the loss of cabin pressurization of National Airlines Flight 27 over New Mexico, USA in 1973. The failure of a CF6-6 was the primary cause of the Sioux City, Iowa USA crash of United Airlines Flight 232 in 1989. CF6-50 The CF6-50 series are high-bypass turbofan engines rated between 51,000 and 54,000 lb (227.41 to 240.79 kN) of thrust. The CF6-50 was developed into the LM5000 industrial turboshaft engines. It was launched in 1969 to power the long range McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30, and was derived from the earlier CF6-6.
Because a significant increase in thrust and therefore core power was required not long after the -6 had entered service, General Electric could not increase (HP) turbine rotor inlet temperature significantly, so they took the very expensive decision to reconfigure the CF6 core to increase its basic size. They achieved this by removing two stages from the rear of the HP compressor (even leaving an empty air passage, where the blades and vanes had once been located). Two extra booster stages were added to the LP (low pressure) compressor, which increased the overall pressure ratio to 29.3. Although the 86.4 in (2.19 m) diameter fan was retained, the airflow was raised to 1450 lb/s (660 kg/s), yielding a static thrust of 51,000 lbf (227 kN). The increase in core size and overall pressure ratio significantly raised the core flow, resulting in a decrease in bypass ratio to 4.26.
In late 1969, the CF6-50 was selected to power the then new Airbus A300. Air France became the launch customer for the A300 by ordering six aircraft in 1971. In 1975, KLM was the first airline to order the Boeing 747 powered by the CF6-50. This led further developments to the CF6 family such as the CF6-80. The CF6-50 also powered the Boeing YC-14 USAF AMST transport prototype. The basic CF6-50 engine was also offered with a 10% thrust derate for the 747SR, a short-range high-cycle version used by All Nippon Airways for domestic Japanese operations. This engine is termed the CF6-45.
Four uncontained failures of CF6-45/50 engines in the preceding two years prompted the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board to issue an “urgent” recommendation to increase inspections of the engines on U.S. aircraft in May 2010. None of the four incidents of rotor disk imbalance and subsequent failure resulted in an accident, but parts of the engine did penetrate the engine housing in each case.
CF6-80 The CF6-80 series are high-bypass turbofan engines with a thrust range of 48,000 to 75,000 lb (214 to 334 kN). Although the HP compressor still has 14 stages, GE did take the opportunity to tidy-up the design, by removing the empty air passage at compressor exit.
Following a series of high-pressure turbine failures, some which resulted in 767s being written off, the FAA has issued an airworthiness directive mandating inspections for over 600 engines. The NTSB believed that this number should be increased to include all -80 series engines with more than 3000 cycles since new or since last inspection. The -80 series is divided into three distinct models.
CF6-80A The CF6-80A, which has a thrust rating of 48,000 to 50,000 lb (214 to 222 kN), powered two twinjets, the Boeing 767 and Airbus A310. The GE-powered 767 entered airline service in 1982, and the GE powered A310 in early 1983. It is rated for ETOPS operations.
For the CF6-80A/A1, the fan diameter remains at 86.4 in (2.19 m), with an airflow of 1435 lb/s (651 kg/s). Overall pressure ratio is 28.0, with a bypass ratio of 4.66. Static thrust is 48,000 lbf (214 kN). The basic mechanical configuration is the same as the -50 series.
CF6-80C2 For the CF6-80C2-A1, the fan diameter is increased to 93 in (2.36 m), with an airflow of 1750 lb/s (790 kg/s). Overall pressure ratio is 30.4, with a bypass ratio of 5.15. Static thrust is 59,000 lb (263 kN). An extra stage is added to the HP compressor, and a 5th to the LP turbine.
The CF6-80C2 was certified on eleven widebody aircraft models including the Boeing 747-400, and McDonnell Douglas MD-11. The CF6-80C2 is also certified for ETOPS-180 for the Airbus A300, Airbus A310, Boeing 767, and, as the F138-GE-100, the U.S. Air Force’s C-5M Super Galaxy.
CF6-80E1 The CF6-80E1 is a derivative of the CF6 family applied to the Airbus A330, with thrust rating of 67,500 to 72,000 lb (300 to 320 kN).
Other variants: The industrial and marine development of the CF6-80C2, the LM6000 Series, has found wide use including fast ferry and high speed cargo ship applications, as well as in power generation.
Applications:
CF6-6 McDonnell Douglas DC-10-10
CF6-45 Boeing 747-100SR
CF6-50 McDonnell Douglas DC-10 McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30 KC-10 Extender Boeing 747 Boeing 747-200 Boeing 747-300 Boeing E-4B Airbus A300 Boeing YC-14
CF6-80A Boeing 767 Airbus A310
CF6-80C2 Boeing 767 E-10 MC2A Boeing E-767 Boeing KC-767 Boeing 747 Boeing 747-400/-400ER Boeing VC-25 (Air Force One) Lockheed C-5M Galaxy McDonnell Douglas MD-11 Airbus A300-600 Kawasaki C-2
CF6-80E1/E2 Airbus A330
Specifications:
CF6-50 Type: Turbofan Length: 183 in (4.65 m) Diameter: 105 in (2.67 m) Dry weight: 8,966 – 9,047 lb (4067 kg – 4104 kg) Compressor: 1 stage fan, 3 stage low pressure, 14 stage high pressure axial compressor Combustors: annular Turbine: 2 stage high pressure, 4 stage low pressure turbine Maximum thrust: 52,500 – 61,500 lbs (234.1 – 274.23 kN) Overall pressure ratio: 29.2:1 – 31.1:1 Bypass ratio: 4.24 – 4.4 Thrust-to-weight ratio: 5.6:1 – 6:1
The F101 was developed specifically for the Advanced Manned Strategic Aircraft, which became the B-1A. The F101 powered the four development aircraft from 1970 to 1981. The B-1A was officially cancelled in 1977. However the flight test program continued. General Electric was awarded a contract to further develop the F101-102 engine variant. This turbofan eventually powered the B-1B from 1984, entering service in 1986. The B-1’s four F101 engines helped the aircraft win 61 world records for speed, payload and range.
The GE F110 fighter engine is a derivative of the F101, designed using data from the F101-powered variant of the F-16 Fighting Falcon tested in the early 1980s. The F101 also became the basis for the highly successful CFM56 series of civil turbofans.
The General Electric F101 is an afterburning turbofan jet engine, in full afterburner it produces a thrust of 30,000 pounds-force (130 kN). The F101 was GE’s first turbofan with an afterburner.
Specifications:
F101-GE-102 Type: Turbofan Length: 181 in. (460 cm) Diameter: 55 in. (140 cm) Dry weight: 4,400 lbf (1995 kg) Compressor: Axial, 2 stage fan, 9 stage high pressure compressor Combustors: Annular Turbine: 1 stage high pressure turbine, 2 stage low pressure turbine Maximum power output: 31,000 lb (138 kN) (with afterburner) Overall pressure ratio: 26.8:1 Specific fuel consumption: 2.46 lb/lbf-hr (max thrust) Thrust-to-weight ratio: 7.04:1 (afterburner)
The General Electric GE36 was an experimental aircraft engine, a hybrid between a turbofan and a turboprop, known as an Unducted Fan (UDF) or propfan. The GE36 was developed by General Electric Aircraft Engines and first run in 1986.
A General Electric F404 military turbofan was used as the basis of the GE36. The F404 mixed exhaust stream discharged through a seven-stage low pressure (LP) turbine, where each stator ring was ‘unearthed’ and free to move in the opposite direction to that of the rotors. One set of open rotor, variable pitch, fan blades was connected to the LP turbine rotor system, while the other set was connected to the contra-rotating LP turbine stators. The scimitar shape of the fan rotor blades enabled high flight speeds (about Mach 0.75) to be obtained. GE used a low speed, (effectively) 14 stage, LP turbine, rather than a conventional high speed LP turbine and reduction gearbox, to drive the fan rotor blades.
Although the engine demonstrated an extremely low specific fuel consumption, cabin noise levels were a problem, even though the engines were mounted at the rear of the test aircraft.
The F 16 was not originally planned as an equipment item for the inventory, but as a candidate for a Light Weight Fighter (LWF) technology demonstrator programme to examine the possibility of building a fighter significantly smaller and cheaper than the F 15. Five companies submitted proposals for an LWF on February 28, 1972, General Dynamics and Northrop were selected to build two prototypes each, designated YF 16 and YF-17, respectively, on April 13, 1972, and on January 13, 1975, the Secretary of the Air Force announced that the F 16 was the final choice. By this time, the emergence of a market, especially among a group of European NATO nations, had caused the programme rather quickly to be recast as an Air Combat Fighter (ACF), with procurement of an operational version promised by the USAF. At the same time, the original concept of a light and uncompromised close-combat dogfighter was changed to include all-weather capability in both the air to air and air to surface roles, with heavy loads of the full spectrum of tactical stores.
The first of two prototypes (72-01567) of the YF-16 (GD model 401) was airlifted from Fort Worth to Edwards AFB in January 1974 and was officially flown for the first time of the 2nd of February 1974, although this aircraft had made an unofficial and unscheduled flight on 20 January after becoming airborne in the hands of Philip Oestricher, who elected to take off when the tailplane was damaged during high-speed taxi tests. An ‘official’ first flight followed on February 2, and subsequent testing was encouraging. The chosen engine was a single Pratt & Whitney F100 PW 100 two shaft augmented turbofan, with maximum thrust rating of 10800 kg (23810 lb) with full afterburner. This engine was chosen because it was already fully developed and in production for the F 15. Although it has a modulated variable profile nozzle, it is fed from a simple fixed inlet and ventral duct to reduce complexity and cost. This reduces maximum high altitude Mach number to below 2.0, but this is considered of little consequence. Virtually all modern air combat takes place at medium to low altitudes at speeds in the order of 650 km/h (404 mph), and turn radius is far more important than speed. The F 16 pilot sits in a reclining McDonnell Douglas seat (of course, with zero/zero capability) and flies with a sidestick controller resembling a miniature control column on the right cockpit console. This small controller is easy to manage under conditions of high g acceleration, and the sloping seat also helps the pilot resist g forces. The controller hardly moves under the pilot’s input demands; instead it contains transducers which sense the pilot’s applied forces. The resulting electrical signals, and those from the rudder pedals, serve as primary inputs to a fly by wire (FBW) control system which also includes the digital autopilot, computer, weapon delivery system and power units driving the flight controls.
F-16E
The wing and fuselage are blended structurally and aerodynamically and, like the tail, incorporate major portions of graphite‑epoxy composite, glass‑fibre, titanium and other advanced materials. There are only five ribs in each wing, but no fewer than 12 spars, all linked to body frames. Long vortex extensions at the root give powerful lift at high angles of attack and allow the wing proper to be made significantly smaller. Along the top of the left extension strake is the M61 20‑mm (0.79‑in) cannon, with a 500‑round ammunition drum lying transversely in the top of the fuselage. About 3162 kg (6971 lb) of fuel is housed in various cells in the wing and fuselage which are governed as two tanks, with a flight‑refuelling receptacle in the top of the mid‑fuselage matched to the SAC Flying Boom type of refuelling method.
Moveable leading-and trailing-edge flaps, controlled automatically by the aircraft’s speed and attitude, enable the wing to assume an optimum configuration for lift under all conditions of flight. All flying controls are operated by a ‘fly-by-wire’ electronic system.
The F-16 has a single vertical tail surface, mid-set all-moving tailplane and mid-set wings of 40 degree leading-edge sweep.
The tailplane is of the taileron type, the two halves operating in unison for pitch control and differentially for roll control.
The full-span ailerons are of the flaperon type, again operating differentially for roll control and in unison for increased lift.
The leading edges are hinged to allow the automatic flight-control system to schedule them as automatic leading-edge flaps and, in concert with the ‘flaperons’, provide a measure of variable camber to the wing.
Take-off and landing has the leading edge flaps at 2 degrees and the flaperons down 20 degrees.
Initial climb has the leading-edge flaps angled down at 15 degrees and the flaperons down at 20 degrees.
High speed flight has the leading-edge flaps and the flaperons both at 2 degrees up.
For manoeuvring, the leading-edge flaps are angled down at 25 degrees and the flaperons level.
Approach has the leading-edge flaps at 15 degrees and the flaperons down at 20 degrees.
In the nose is a Westinghouse X‑band pulse‑doppler radar, with planar‑array aerial. It can function in many modes including air-to‑air look‑up or look‑down, auto‑acquisition dogfight, air‑to‑ground ranging, ground mapping, expanded mapping, doppler beam-sharpening, beacon, ‘freeze’ (fixed display), and two types of Sea Mode for anti-shipping missions. Delco make the computer, Marconi‑Elliott of Britain, the advanced HUD (head‑up display), Kaiser the head‑down display (HDD) and Singer‑Kearfott the inertial navigation system. Up to 6894 kg (15 200 lb) of weapons, ECM pods and tanks can be carried on nine pylons.
The YF-16 prototypes were being flown by six pilots, two each from General Dynamics, the Air Force Flight Test Centre and the Tactical Air Command. The single-seat, single-engine aircraft, 47 feet long with a 30-foot wingspan, is designed as a compact, low-cost fighter for air-to-air combat. It also can carry nearly 9,0001b of missiles and bombs for air-to-ground missions. The YF-16 is powered by a Pratt & Whitney F-100-PW-200 turbofan, the same engine used in the Air Force F-15 fighter. The F-100 engine produces about 25,0001b / 10814kg of thrust with full afterburner.
The F-16 is built in three major subsections. Some 80 percent of the airframe is made of conventional aluminium alloy, and about 60 percent is from sheet metal. Steel, composites and titanium represent about 8 percent of the structure. The wing is a cropped delta with a 40-degree leading-edge sweep. It has a 4 percent thickness/chord ratio and a 64A204 airfoil section. The structure consists of eleven spars and five ribs. Upper and lower skins are machined from a single piece. The wing is blended into the fuselage which creates a significant stowage area for internal fuel, which accounts for 31 percent of the loaded weight of the F-16. Leading edges are blended into the fuselage with strakes which, at high angles of attack, create vortices that maintain energy in the airflow over the wings, delaying root stalling and contributing to directional stability. Trailing edges have inboard “flappers” which combine the functions of flaps and ailerons. They can be drooped to 20 degrees. Leading-edge flaps contribute to the aircraft’s legendary manoeuvrability. The single vertical tail is of multi-rib, multi-spar construction in aluminium, with the skin made of graphite epoxy. Two ventral fins are made of glass fibre. There is an all-flying tailplane. Main and nosewheel gear retract into the fuselage. The single air intake is mounted underneath the fuselage, giving the F-16 its distinctive profile. This location was chosen to provide minimal airflow disturbance over a wide range of aircraft attitudes. Location of the nosewheel gear aft of the intake means that FOD (foreign object damage) ingestion problems have been minor. The intake is of fixed geometry. A separation strut provides additional tunnel ridigity. Many parts are interchangeable between port and starboard including the horizontal tail surfaces, flaperons and most of the main landing gear. The view from the cockpit is exemplary. A polycarbonate clamshell canopy encloses the pilot who sits on an ACES II rocket powered ejection seat, cleared for ‘zero-zero’ performance up to 600 knots and/or 50,000 ft. The inside of the canopy is tinted with a thin gold film, which dissipates radar energy. The seat is raked backwards at 30 degrees, to enhance the pilot’s ability to withstand high g. Instead of a conventional control column, the F16 is fitted with a sidestick controller mounted to starboard. “Fly-by-wire” powered controls and artificial “feel” require the sidestick to be moved only millimetres.
In April 1975, the first definitive USAF contract specified six F‑16As and two tandem‑seat dual‑control F‑16B trainers with full combat capability (the B has 17% less internal fuel). The USAF said it would buy 650 aircraft in all, but this total was subsequently been increased to a currently planned force of 1388 aircraft. On June 7, 1975, at the Paris air show, it was jointly announced by Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands and Norway that they had selected the F‑16 over two other candidate aircraft to replace the F‑104, buying initial totals of: Belgium 90A+ 12B+ 14 options; Denmark 40A+8B+ 10 options; the Netherlands 84 (A, B combined)+ 18 options; and Norway 60A+ 12B (no options).
In September 1976, Iran ordered 160 from the US Government, signifying its eventual requirement for a total of 300. Iran is unlikely to participate in manufacture, but the four European countries signed a complex collaborative/offset deal which gives them the right to make major parts of the airframe, engine and equipment, both for their own purchases and those of other customers including the USAF. Since 1976, Turkey has expressed a wish to join this consortium, but no decision had been announced by them by early 1978.
F-16XL
The first production F 16A (75 0745) flew on 8 December 1976 at Fort Worth, Texas, and the first F 16B on August 8, 1977. The first operational F-16A was delivered in January 1979 to the 388th Tactical Fighter Wing at Hill Air Force Base, Utah and its first overseas unit, the 8th TFW at Kunsan AB, South Korea, on 1 November 1980. The first USAF unit in Europe to re-equip with Fighting Falcons was the 50th TFW at Hahn AB, West Germany on 1 December 1981. As part of a major policy decision to upgrade the equipment operated by second-line units, the F-16 has already reached the South Carolina Air National Guard, deliveries beginning in mid-1983, followed by other ANG units, as the aircraft were replaced in USAF by later models. Initial USAF production versions were the F-16A single-seater and F-16B two-seat operational trainer with an extended canopy and dual controls, powered by Pratt & Whitney F100 engines and equipped with APG-66 radars. Four European countries selected the F-16A/B, with manufacture by a consortium with two final assembly lines, in Belgium and The Netherlands.
First F-16 assembled in Europe – Belgium Air Force F-16B FB-01 first flying December 1978
The European F-16A/B aircraft have been upgraded under the Mid-Life Update program and designated F-16AM/BM.
The F-16C and F-16D aircraft, which are the single- and two-place counterparts to the F-16A/B, incorporate modern cockpit control and display technology. The F-16C/D models were the result of a multi¬national staged improvement programme (MSIP) initiated in 1980. Changes include the introduction of a more capable APG-68 radar with increased detection range and track-while-scan mode, plus new cockpit displays with multifunction CRTs and a wide-angle headup display and an increase in the maximum take-off gross weight. First flown in December 1982, the F-16C/D became the standard production model, although the earlier F-16A/B was still available for export. Following General Elec-tric’s success in the Alternate Fighter Engine competition, F-16C/Ds delivered from FY1985 have comprised mixed batches of General Elec¬tric F110 and Pratt & Whitney F100-220 powered aircraft. Engine contracts are to be agreed annually, with the lowest bidder supplying the majority of the power plants for that year. In FY1985 General Electric provided 75 per cent of the engines needed for F-16C/D production. Export aircraft are available with either engine. The TUSAS organisation in Turkey is to build F-16C/D aircraft and F110 engines for the Turkish Air Force, which is purchasing 160 aircraft, including an initial batch supplied by General Dynamics. Deliveries of TUSAS assembled F-16s is scheduled to begin in 1988. The F-16CJ is a modified F-16C for the SEAD role. By June 1987 2,975 F-16s of all versions had been ordered, including aircraft for licence production (Turkey – 278, South Korea – 108, Belgium – 222, Netherlands – 300), and 1,774 had been delivered. Early in 1987 Bahrain became the 16th nation to order the F-l6, contracting for 12 aircraft powered by General Electric F110 engines. The Block 60 F-16E single and F-16F two-seat fighters feature technology improving the combat effectiveness and multi-role capability of the aircraft. Deliveries of these variants started to the United Arab Emirates as the first customer. The first Block 60 made its maiden flight in December 2003. Israel took delivery of the F-16I, which is a customized version of the F-16E/F with Israeli avionics and weapons. The F-16R is a reconnaissance version with an underfuselage pod, and the F-16N is an ‘Aggressor’ version for the US Navy. General Dynamics has elected to improve the overall performance of the F 16 in the ground attack role by installing a new cranked arrow wing. With 120 per cent more wing area and two fuselage plugs lengthening the fuselage 54 ft 1.86 in (16.51 m) to accommodate the longer root chord, the double delta F 16XL carries 82 per cent more internal fuel. Stores are carried tangentially to the wing undersurface on 17 hardpoints, and drag fully loaded is some 60 per cent less than with conventional carriage. Radar cross section is also halved. The reduction in drag and the greater fuel capacity has a dramatic effect on the F 16XL’s payload/range performance, enabling the aircraft to carry twice the payload of an F 16A to a 45 per cent greater combat radius. Penetration speeds are increased by up to 100kt to around Mach 0. 9. Air to air performance is also improved, with the 9g manoeuvre envelope doubling in size. Manoeuvre capability fully loaded is also improved from 5.5g to 7.33g. Instantaneous turn rate is increased. The variant first flew on 3 July 1982. The Air Force’s evaluation involved four F 15s and two F 16XLs. Boeing, Rockwell and McDonnell Douglas co operated with NASA to set up a series of supersonic laminar flow tests involving a single seat F 16XL in flights beginning in 1991. When these showed promise, a two seat XL was used for the second series of fights during which more than 40 flights were completed by late 1996. Research results indicate it is possible to make a 4% weight saving by applying a laminar flow wing to supersonic airliners. Of the two F 16XLs built by GD as a private venture, one is a single seater powered by a Pratt & Whitney F100 and the other is a two seater powered by the General Electric F110.
The F-16XL has a 56in / 1.42m longer fuselage boosting fuel capacity by 80%. The F-16XL has a maximum of 29 hardpoints available on 17 stores stations. The stores stations are semi-conformal to minimise drag, which is 58% less than that of the F-16, enabling the F-16XL to carry twice the payload 45% further than the basic F-16.
During the 1970s and early 1980s considerable research was undertaken into a host of aeronautical fields but this was generally performed with conversions of existing aircraft such as the F-16 Fighting Falcon converted by General Dynamics into the F-16/AFTI for investigation of direct-force controls within the overall context of the CCV (Control-Configured Vehicle) portion of the Advanced Fighter Technology Integration programme, which was intended to create a quantum leap in fighter manoeuvrability.
The very first YF-16 (72-1567) was rebuilt in December 1975 to become the USAF Flight Dynamics Laboratory’s Control-Configured Vehicle (CCV). Fly-by-wire flight controls and relaxed static stability found on all Vipers made the YF-16 an ideal candidate to evaluate control of an aircraft beyond conventional means, with independent or ‘decoupled’ flight surfaces. The YF-16/CCV could rise or fall using direct lift, move laterally by direct side force, or yaw, pitch, or roll regardless of the direction of flight. Twin vertical canards beneath the air intake and flight controls permitted use of wing trailing edge flaperons in combination with the all-moving stabilator. The YF-16/CCV flew on 16 March 1976, piloted by David J. Thigpen. On 24 June 1976, the ship was seriously damaged in a landing after its engine failed on approach. The flight test programme was resumed and lasted until 31 July 1977, when 87 sorties and 125 air hours had been logged.
Early in the development stage, General Dynamics wanted to market a simpler version of the F-16 for export, and teamed up with General Electric to create a version powered by the 8165kg thrust General Electric J79-GE-17X single-shaft turbojet, a development of the engine employed on the F-104 Starfighter and F-4 Phantom. As the J79-GE-119, this engine was installed on a full-scale development F-16B (75-0752) bailed back from the USAF. The Turbojet required a lower airflow than the P&W FI00-PW-200 used on all production F-16A/Bs so the shape of the air intake was altered. Since the J79 engine was 18 in (46 cm) longer than the F100, the rear fuselage was extended aft of the stabilator pivot point by that amount. The resulting F-16/79, made its first flight on 29 October 1980, and was existant in F-16/79A (single-seat) and F-16/79B (two-seat) versions.
The F-16/101 was a similarly re-engined example powered by a General Electric YJ101 two-shaft augmented turbojet engine delivering about 15,000 lb (6803 kg) thrust, had performed well on the Northrop YF- 17 and its builder wanted to demonstrate the much improved DFE (derivative fighter engine) version, capable of up to 26,500-lb (12,020-kg) thrust on a single-engine F-16. The retrofit was made on this first full scale development F-16A (75-0745) which flew with the GE engine on 19 December 1980. The F-16/101 made 58 test flights and logged 75 air hours before the programme ended in July 1981. The F-16/101 was not adopted but the way had been paved for development of an improved GE engine, the F 110, on the Fighting Falcon beginning with F-16C block 30/32 aircraft.
In June, 1975, four European countries (Belgium, Netherlands, Derunark, and Norway) announced plans to purchase 348 fighters. In February 1978, the first European F-16 assembly line opened at Sabca/Sonaca where Belgium took delivery on 29 January 1979 of the first locally-manufactured F-16 out of the country’s original order for 116 aircraft (96 F-16As and 20 F-16Bs). Belgian F-16As were serialed FA-01/136 (78-116/161; 80-3538/3546; 80-3547/3587; 86-0073/0077; 87-0046/0056; 88-0038/0047; 89-000110011; 90-0025/0027). F-16Bs were serialed FB-01/24 (78-0162/0173; 80-3588/3595; 87-0001; 88-0048/0049; 89-0012). FA-01/55 and FB-01/12 were upgraded to F-16A/B block 10 standard, while FA-56/136 and FB-25/24 were built as F-16A block 1s (big tail) aircraft.
Norway acquired seventy-two F-16A and B model Lawn Darts (sixty F-16As and twelve F-16Bs) from the Netherlands’ Fokker production line between 15 January 1980 and 4 June 1984. Six F-16A/B block 15 (four F-16A and two F-16B) attrition replacements were later ordered. Norway employs the F-16 in a defensive role, Scandinavian geography dictating an important anti-shipping mission. On 12 December 1979, the first Fighting Falcon for the RNAF completed its maiden flight from Fokker’s Schipol plant. Norwegian aircraft have drag chutes to operate on snowy and an identification spotlight for use during long dark winters.
In April 1978, the second European F-16 assembly line (after Belgium) opened at Fokker-VFW in the Netherlands. In May 1979, the first Dutch-assembled F-16 made its maiden flight. Holland later increased its F-16 purchase from 102 to 213 aircraft.
The USAF continues large-scale procure¬ment of F-16s, with the 180 approved in FY1986 taking total purchases to 1,859. In October 1986 the F-16 won the Air Defence Fighter (ADF) competition, a modified version of the F-16A being selected instead of the Northrop F-20A Tigershark. The ADF contract will cover the modification of existing F-l6As, and will not be for new-build aircraft. In April 1987 the US Navy took delivery of the first F-16N supersonic adversary aircraft of the 26 ordered. By 1994, production of the F-16 had been taken over by Lockheed Martin.
The F-16 Block 70 variant, also known as the F-16V, features cutting-edge enhancements including the AN/APG-83 AESA radar, new mission computers, a digital cockpit, and advanced electronic warfare systems. These upgrades provide superior situational awareness, survivability, and multirole performance.
On 18 March 2005, Lockheed Martin Aero plant in Fort Worth, Texas, delivered the final F-16 Fighting Falcon for the US Air Force; F-16CJ 01-7053. Lockheed Martin continues to produce the F-16 fighter for international customers. A total of 2231 F-16s have been produced for the U.S. Air Force.
F-16A Engine: P&W F100-220, Normal-12,420 lb st, military-14,670 lb st, afterburn-23,830 lb st. Length: 47.638 ft / 14.52 m Height: 16.699 ft / 5.09 m Wingspan: 31.004 ft / 9.45 m Wing area: 300 sq ft (27,9 sq.m). Max take off weight : 35390.3 lb / 16050.0 kg Empty wt: 15,137 lb (6 865 kg). Internal fuel: 6,972 lb (3 162 kg). Max. weight carried : 19800.9 lb / 8980.0 kg Air superiority gross weight: 23,357 lb (10952 kg) with ammunition and two Sidewinders. Wing loading: 78 lb/sq ft (397 kg/ sq.m). Thrust/weight ratio: 1.02. Max. speed : 1158 kts / 2145 km/h Cruising speed : 533 kts / 988 km/h Initial climb rate : 41338.58 ft/min / 210.0 m/s Service ceiling : 50000 ft / 15240 m Range : 1042 nm / 1930 km Fuel fraction: 30%. Armament : 1x MK 20mm M61A1, 5440kg ext 9pt. / 2-6 AIM-9 Sidewinder Seats: 1.
F 16B Engine: P&W F100-220, Normal-12,420 lb st, military-14,670 lb st, afterburn-23,830 lb st. Wingspan: 10m. Length: 15.03m. Height: 5.09m. Wing area: 27.9sq.m. Empty wt: 7909 kg. Internal fuel: 2745 kg. MTOW: 16,057 kg. Seats: 2
F-16C Engine: General Elec¬tric F110 Seats: 1
F-16C Engine: Pratt & Whitney F100-200 turbofan, 23,840 lb Wingspan: 31 ft / 9.45 m Length: 49 ft 6 in / 15.09 m MTOW: 35,400 lb / 16,057 kg Max speed: 1350 mph / 2173 kph Max ferry range: 2415 sm / 3890 km Armament: 1 x 20 mm cannon (515 rds) External load: up to 20,450 lb / 9276 kg
F-16C Fighting Falcon Engine: 1 x Pratt & Whitney F100-220 or General Electric F110-GE-100 Installed thrust (dry – reheat): 67 – 113 kN. / 27,600 – 23,450 lb / 12,519 – 10,637 kg Span: 10 m / 32 ft 9.75 in Length: 15.1 m / 49 ft 4 in Wing area: 27.87 sq.m / 300.0 sq.ft Height: 16 ft 8.5 in / 4.09 m Empty wt: 8315 kg / 18,335 lb MTOW: 19,187 kg / 42,300 lb Warload: 5413 kg. Max speed: 1320+ mph / 2124+ kph / M2+ at 40,000ft/12,190m Initial ROC: 50,000+ fpm / 15,240+ m/s Ceiling: 18,000+ m. TO run: 760 m. Ldg run: 760 m. Combat radius: 925+ km / 575+ mi Fuel internal: 4060 lt. Air refuel: Yes. Armament: 1 x 20 mm, 2/4/6 x AAM Hard points: 5 + 2 wing tips. Disposable stores: 20,450 lb / 9276 kg Seats: 1.
F-16CJ Engine: Pratt & Whitney F100, or General Elec¬tric F110 or Pratt & Whitney F100-220 Seats: 1
F-16D Engine: Pratt & Whitney F100, or General Elec¬tric F110 or Pratt & Whitney F100-220 Seats: 2
F-16E Engine: 1 x General Electric F110, 7700/13150kg Max take-off weight: 21770 kg / 47995 lb Wingspan: 10.4 m / 34 ft 1 in Length: 16.5 m / 54 ft 2 in Wing area: 62 sq.m / 667.36 sq ft Max. speed: 2200 km/h / 1367 mph Crew: 1
F 16XL Engine: General Electric F110 Length: 54 ft 1.86 in (16.51 m) Hardpoints: 17 Penetration speed: Mach 0. 9. Manoeuvre capability: 7.33g. Seats: 2
F 16XL Engine: Pratt & Whitney F100 Length: 54 ft 1.86 in (16.51 m) Hardpoints: 17 Penetration speed: Mach 0. 9. Manoeuvre capability: 7.33g. Seat: 1
F-16/79 Engine: General Electric J79-GE-119
F-16/101 Engine: General Electric YJ101, 26,500-lb (12,020-kg)
Engine: 1 x P+W F-100-PW-100, 112.1kN Max take-off weight: 9780-15000 kg / 21561 – 33070 lb Empty weight: 6330 kg / 13955 lb Wingspan: 9.3 m / 30 ft 6 in Length: 14.4 m / 47 ft 3 in Height: 5.0 m / 16 ft 5 in Wing area: 26.0 sq.m / 279.86 sq ft Max. speed: M1.2 Ceiling: 19000 m / 62350 ft Range w/max.fuel: 3200 km / 1988 miles Range w/max.payload: 500 km / 311 miles Armament: 1 x 20mm machine-guns, 5000kg of bombs or missiles Crew: 1
Engine: one 129 kN (26,000 lb st) General Electric F110-GE-129 or Pratt & Whitney F100-P-229 turbofan Length 15.03m (49 ft 4 in) Height 5.09m (16 ft 8.5 in) Wing span (over tip launchers) 9.45m (31ft 0 in) Take-off weight (clean): 9.791 kg (21,585 lb) Max Take-Off Weight: 19.187 kg (42,300 lb) Armament: one 20mm M61A1 Vulcan six-barrel gun 515 rounds; 9276 kg (20,450 lb) of disposable stores Hardpoints: nine
Electric Boat, set up by American lawyer Isaac Rice, had merged with other companies in the 1950s including Convair aircraft, to make up a new company called General Dynamics.
A major reorganization in 1961 resulted in General Dynamics’ 12 operating divisions being divided into two major groups. On the aerospace side, the Western Group contained components of the Convair division, which itself had originated in 1923 as the Consolidated Aircraft Corporation, merging in 1943 with Vultee Aircraft Inc. to form Consolidated Vultee Aircraft Corporation. Before this, Consolidated had taken over two other aircraft companies, Thomas Morse and Hall Aluminium. In 1954 Consolidated Vultee merged with the General Dynamics Corporation to become the Convair Division, at which time the CV-880 and -990 jet transports were in production, together with F-102 and F-106 fighters, and the B-58 Hustler was at an advanced stage to provide the USAF with its first supersonic bomber (first flown November 1956). Two USAF wings eventually flew B-58As. In December 1964 the first flight took place of the F- 111, a variable-geometry tactical fighter-bomber which entered USAF operational service from 1968, followed by the FB-111A strategic bomber variant which replaced B- 58As from 1970. In January (officially February) 1974 the first flight took place of the F-16 lightweight fighter for the USAF; selected for engineering and manufacturing development in 1975, but with ground-attack options and provision for radar and navigation avionics suited to all-weather operations. Chosen also for service by European air forces, with European assembly, F-16 deliveries began 1979 (nearly 4,000 delivered by 1999 to many forces worldwide). Light aircraft manufacturer Cessna bought in 1985, but sold to Textron in 1992. The Tactical Military Aircraft division of General Dynamics was bought by Lockheed Corporation in March 1993, becoming Lockheed Fort Worth Company; taking over programs including F-16 and the General Dynamics share in the F-22 (previously a program of three manufacturers: General Dynamics, Lockheed, and Boeing). General Dynamics acquired Cessna in 1985 but in 1992 sold the company to Textron. Defense giant General Dynamics bought the business jet maker Gulfstream Aerospace in a stock deal estimated to be worth about $5.3 billion in 1999.
The F.22 Pinguino two-seat aerobatic lightplane and trainer was built in several versions with retractable or fixed undercarriages (first flown June 1989), and the F.22 Bupp variant with only fixed undercarriage and other changes. The aircraft is built at Perugia Airport, Italy.
