The requirement for an Airborne Warning And Control System (AWACS) aircraft was outlined by the US Air Force in 1963, at which time it was envisaged that a force of up to 64 of these specially-equipped aircraft would be needed. Economic considerations have made it necessary to reduce considerably the number of aircraft to be acquired initially. The resulting Boeing E-3A Sentry is essentially a flexible, jamming-resistant, mobile and survivable radar station, plus a command, communications and control centre, all contained within the airframe of a Boeing 707. In addition to its long-range high- or low-level surveillance capability, an AWACS aircraft can provide all-weather identification and tracking over all kinds of terrain, and the 22nd and subsequent aircraft also have a maritime surveillance capability. Boeing was the successful one of two contenders for the supply of an AWACS aircraft, being awarded a contract on 23 July 1970 to provide two prototypes under the designation EC-137D. The company’s proposed AWACS was based on the airframe of the Boeing Model 707-320B commercial transport, and the prototypes were modified in the first place to carry out comparative trials between the prototype downward-looking surveillance radars designed by the Hughes Aircraft company and Westinghouse Electric Corporation. These tests continued into the autumn of 1972, and on 5 October the USAF announced that Westinghouse had been selected as prime contractor for the advanced radar that was to be the essential core of the AWACS. This has the task of seeking and identifying low-flying targets at ranges as great as 370km, and in the case of high-altitude attack at even greater ranges.
Very little modification of the basic 707-320B airframe was needed to make it suitable for the new role. An external, large rotodome assembly carried on two wide-chord streamlined struts are secured to the upper rear fuselage. The remainder of the essential avionics antennae are housed within the wings, fuselage, fin and tailplane. New engine pylon fairings are provided for the more powerful turbofan engines of the pre-production EC-137Ds, and of the production aircraft which were designated E-3A and given the name Sentry. Internal modifications included strengthening of the cabin floor, provision of MPC (multi-purpose console) and other equipment bays, and addition of a crew rest area. Basic operations require a flight crew of four plus 13 AWACS specialist officers, but this number can vary for defence and tactical missions, and other personnel can be carried for systems management and radar maintenance.
Liquid cooling protects the radar transmitter, housed in the aft cargo hold, and a conventional air-cycle and ram-air environmental control system provides for crew comfort and the safe operation of other avionics equipment. Electrical power is supplied by generators with a combined output of 600 kVA. The over-fuselage rotodome is 9.14m in diameter and has a maximum depth of 1.83m. This incorporates the AN/APY-1 surveillance radar and IFF/TADIL C antennae. During operational use the rotodome is driven hydraulically at 6 rpm, but in non-operational flight is rotated at one twenty-fourth of this speed to ensure that low temperatures do not cause the bearing lubricant to congeal and prevent normal operation when required.
The Westinghouse radar, installed first in the 22nd Sentry, and scheduled to be updated in earlier aircraft, can function as a pulse and/or pulse-Doppler radar, and is operable in six different modes. The data processing capability of the first 23 E-3As is provided by an IBM 4 Pi CC-1 high-speed computer. It has a processing speed of some 740,000 operations per second, main memory capacity of 114,688 words, and a mass memory of 802,816 words. The IBM CC-2 computer, introduced on the 24th production aircraft, has a main memory capacity of 665,360 words. Also introduced on this aircraft is the newly-developed Joint Tactical Information Distribution System (JTIDS). This provides a high-speed secure communications channel for up to 98,000 users, and one that is less vulnerable to jamming.
The first Boeing E 3A Sentry aircraft was delivered to USAF Tactical Air Command’s 552nd Airborne Warning and Control Wing at Tinker AFB, Oklahoma, in March 1977, while the Nato fleet was delivered between January 1982 and April 1985. Saudi Arabian E3 Peace Sentinel AWACS and KE-3A tankers are powered by CFM-56 turbofans, and were delivered from late August 1986. The US/Nato Standard E-3A features a radar modified to track ships, a faster central computer with expanded memory, and improved communications equipment, including JT1DS. Ten USAF Standard E-3As are being upgraded to E-3C configuration by the addition of five more consoles and extra communications systems. The conversion of 24 early production USAF Core E-3As to E-3B standard covers the upgrade of communications equipment, including the installation of JTIDS and the fitting of extra consoles and a US/Nato Standard computer. Hardpoints for chaff/flare dispensers are also being fitted. The first E-3B conversion was delivered in July 1984. A force of 18 generally similar aircraft was acquired by NATO. Initial deliveries of NATO’s operational E-3As, which are based at Geilenkirchen, West Germany, were made during 1982. They differ from their USAF counterparts by comparatively minor changes in installed avionics to meet NATO communications requirements. They also introduced underwing hardpoints to carry self-defence weapons, but these mountings can be used optionally to carry ECM pods. The Sentry has also been sold to France and the United Kingdom, all export aircraft being powered by CFM56 high bypass ratio turbofans.
Flying for the first time on 27 June 1990 after leaving the Renton assembly line in April, was the first E-3F Sentry AWAC for the Armee de l’Air.
E-3A Sentry Engine : Pratt&Whitney TF33-PW-100 / 100A, 21,000 lb (9525 kgp) Length : 152 ft 11 in / 46.61 m Height : 42.421 ft / 12.93 m Wingspan : 145 ft 9 in / 44.42 m Wing area : 3050.518 sq.ft / 283.4 sq.m Max take off weight : 325061.1 lb / 147420.0 kg Weight empty : 170027.6 lb / 77110.0 kg Max. speed : 545 kt / 1010 km/h Cruising speed : 478 kt / 886 km/h Ceiling: 8840 m / 29000 ft Wing load : 106.6 lb/sq.ft / 520.0 kg/sq.m Range : 5940 nm / 11000 km Crew : 3 + 14
E-3A Sentry Engine: 4 x CFM56-2 turbofan. Installed thrust: 392.6 kN. Span: 44.4 m. Length: 46.6 m. Wing area: 511 sq.m. Empty wt: 78,000 kg. MTOW: 147,400 kg. Max speed: 855 kph. Ceiling: 12,000 m. T/O run: 2450 m. Ldg run: 1130 m. Fuel internal: 90,800 lt. Range: 1600 km. Endurance: 6 hr on station. Air refuel: Yes.
At company board meeting on 22 April 1952 that meeting voted to go ahead and use company money ($20,000,000) — more than the company had – to fly a prototype jet transport. Actually called the 367-80, this air¬craft was rolled out on 15 May 1954 and first flew on 15 July 1954. Despite its size and speed it had manual flight controls, in all respects the 367-80 proved to be excellent. The Boeing 367-80, the first American turbojet airliner, was unique in having a wing sweep¬back of 35 degrees, and four engines suspended in pods below the wings.
Boeing 367-80
In October 1954 an order came through for 29 KC-135 Stratotankers, based on the 367-80. These were allocated the designation KC-135A, and the first of them made its initial flight on 31 August 1956; 10 months later, on 28 June 1957, the first was delivered to Castle AFB, California.
The KC-135 featured tanking equipment and an all-Boeing powered boom. Fuel was carried in the belly and wings and power was generated by use of four J57 powerplants. The system was generally crewed by three personnel though additions could be made when mission-specific (5 are utilized in the MEDEVAC role for instance).
KC-135R Stratotanker
This military version of the Model 367-80 is identified as the Boeing Model 717: it differs primarily from the later Model 707 by having a smaller-diameter fuselage, deletion of cabin windows, reduced size and weight, and accommodation for 80 passengers or an equivalent weight of cargo on the main deck. All equipment for the tanker role is carried on the lower deck, or normal cargo area, and includes the pivoted ‘Flying Boom’ refuelling gear. This was modified subsequently by the provision of an adaptor to allow for probe-and-drogue refuelling of Tactical Air Command and US Navy/Marine Corps aircraft. Power is provided by four 6123kg thrust Pratt & Whitney J57-P-59W turbojets.
Boeing EC-135C Looking Glass
The Model 717 Stratolifter family differs from the foregoing by being equipped specifically to serve as long-range transports. These have the refuelling boom deleted, but there is a structural similarity between these two basic tanker/lifter types, with interior changes in the latter providing accommodation for up to 126 troops, or 44 stretchers plus 54 sitting casualties. Galley and toilet facilities are provided at the rear of the cabin, and provision is made for an alternative all-freight role. The initial version was the C-135A with turbojet engines, first flown on 19 May 1961, and delivered to MATS on 8 June 1961 to become the USAF’s first strategic jet transport.
In 1964 the Strategic Air Command’s C-135A command post aircraft were being modified for inflight refuelling to etend flight duration beyond the 8 hr 30 min available. The C-135B’s were t be fitted with refuelling equipment on the production line.
Some three dozen KC-135 Stratotankers (first flown on 31 August 1956) or C-135B transports have been modified to serve the USAF and other government agencies in specialised reconnaissance roles.
The USAF plans to re-engine some 630 KC-135A tankers with fuel-efficient CFM-56 turbofans, under the designation KC-135R. The programme began in 1983, and is due to run until 1995. The prototype conversion flew on August 4, 1982, and production deliveries started in 1984. KC-135Rs are expected to remain in service until 2020 at least, probably with further avionics updates later. Eleven French Air Force KC-135Fs are also being retrofitted with CFM-56s as KC-135FRs. The first was delivered in August 1985. Ten KC-135As were modified to EC-135K standard as airborne relay aircraft. Under a separate programme, 104 Air National Guard KC-135s, together with 24 Air Force Reserve and 23 special-mission aircraft, are being re-engined with JT-3D turbofans acquired from retired airline Boeing 707s, and are known as KC-135Es (in tanker configuration). The first was completed in July 1982. Four RC-135As were camera-equipped for photo-mapping, but most of the RC variants, including RC-135C, RC-135D, RC-l35E, RC-135M, RC-135S, RC-135T, RC-135U, RC-135V, RC-135W and RC-135X, carry nose-mounted and side-looking radars and other sensors. Some RC variants have the original 13,750 lb st (6 237 kgp) Pratt & Whitney J57-P-59W turbojets; others have been converted to have 18,000 lb st (8 165 kgp) TF33-P-9 turbofans.
In 1967 eight standard Boeing C 135s were converted by Douglas Aircraft Company to ARIA (Apollo Range Instrumented Aircraft) EC 135Ns. Each aircraft carries inside its bulbous nose a dish shaped radar antenna to track spacecraft and lock on to them for the transmission and reception of radio messages and data telemetry between the NASA Manned Space Flight Centre at Houston, Texas, and the Apollo programme. The 707 has also been operated by the US military as the VC-135. The Navy received congressional approval to modify two Boeing NKC-135s into electronic warfare aircraft to be used for electronic warfare training of the fleet. Boeing KC/C-135 The RC 135W is derived from the RC 135M, and differs from the RC 135V in having turbofan engines. Equipment wise it is similar to the “V”, but it has a longer SLAR cheek, which cuts into the crew door area rather than stopping short of it. Also, a pair of viewing ports have been added to the overwing hatch on the RC-135W. The “V” features additional airconditioning intakes on the engine pylons. The Republic of Singapore Air Force took delivery of the first of four KC-135R Stratotankers on 10 September 1999. The former USAF KC-135A was withdrawn from ARMARC and updated with CFM56 engines and a Boeing developed multi-point refuelling system. It has bith the normal KC-135 refuelling boom and hose together with hose and drogue units under each wing.
In 1963 French KC-135 crews were being trained by SAC’s 93rd Bomb Wing at Castle AFB, California, at a rate of one four-man crew each month. France had bought 12 KC-135F which, along with crew training program, was paid under US Military assistance sales project. Training was to be completed by February 1964.
ERV-94 of the French Air Force at Istres received the last of 11 C-135FRs on 13 April 1988, serial CI (12737). Boeing converted these and equipped them with new CFM turbofans.
C-135FR serial CI (12737) on 13 April 1988
Two modified KC-135As are used by the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to check navigation aids throughout the United States.
367-80 Engines: 4 x Pratt & Whitney J-57-P, 9500 lb Wingspan: 130 ft Wing area: 2400 sq.ft Length: 127 ft 10 in Height: 38 ft 3 in Empty weight: 88,890 lb Loaded weight: 190,000 lb Max speed: 630 mph Max cruise: 550 mph at 35,000 ft
KC-135A Engines: 4 x Pratt & Whitney J57-P-59W turbojet, 13,750 lb. Wing span: 130 ft 10 in (39.88m). Length: 136 ft 3 in (41.53m). Wing area: 2433 sq.ft (226.06sq.m). Max wt: 297,000 lb (134,715 kg). Typical cruise: 532 mph @ 45,000 ft. Endurance: 5.5 hr.
C-135R Engines: 4 x CFM56.
KC-135R Stratotanker Engines: 4 x CFM F108 turbofan, 22,000lb Length: 136.25ft (41.53m) Wingspan: 130.84ft (39.88m) Height: 41.67ft (12.70m) Empty Weight: 106,307lbs (48,220kg) Maximum Take-Off Weight: 322,503lbs (146,285kg) Maximum Speed: 610mph (982kmh; 530kts) Maximum Range: 2,880miles (4,635km) Rate-of-Climb: 1,290ft/min (393m/min) Service Ceiling: 41,719ft (12,716m) Accommodation: 3
RC-135M
RC-135V
RC-135W
Engines: 4 x P+W TF-33-P-5 Take-off weight: 125000 kg / 275579 lb Empty weight: 47000 kg / 103618 lb Wingspan: 39.9 m / 130 ft 11 in Length: 41.0 m / 134 ft 6 in Height: 11.7 m / 38 ft 5 in Wing area: 226.0 sq.m / 2432.64 sq ft Max. speed: 970 km/h / 603 mph Cruise speed: 650 km/h / 404 mph Ceiling: 10700 m / 35100 ft Range w/max.fuel: 14800 km / 9197 miles Range w/max.payload: 4900 km / 3045 miles Crew: 4-5 Passengers: 126
In 1971 the USAF began to put together the specification of a new transport as a possible replacement for its fleet of Lockheed C-130 Hercules aircraft. In early 1972 requests for proposals were sent out to nine US manufacturers, and those of the Boeing Company and McDonnell Douglas Corporation were selected for competitive evaluation under the respective designations YC-14 and YC-15. The Boeing Model 953 design for STOL performance was based on the use of a supercritical wing, developed by NASA from the wind-tunnel research of Dr Richard Whitcomb, which provides highly efficient performance from the wing at high subsonic speeds. To this wing Boeing added an advanced wing upper-surface blowing concept, mounting the twin engines above the wing so that their efflux was exhausted over the wing. With the wing’s leading-edge and Coanda-type trailing-edge flaps extended, the high-speed airflow from the engines tended to cling to the upper surface of the wing/flap system, and was thus directed downwards to provide powered lift.
Designed to carry 27,000 pounds of cargo in and out of short, unimproved airfields, the Boeing YC 14 is powered by two shoulder mounted GE CF6 50 engines The Boeing YC 14 prototype (72-1873) for competitive evaluation against the McDonnell Douglas YC-15 was flown for the first time on 9 August 1976. Maximum payload was 150 troops or 36,742kg of freight in conventional operations, while for STOL operations from an airfield of less than 572m the payload was still a useful 12,247kg. At the completion of testing, in the late summer of 1977, the YC-14 prototype was returned to Boeing for continuing development, if the company so wished, but no further government funding for development or procurement was forthcoming. Boeing’s YC-14 program was aborted after 600 hours of flight testing with two prototypes.
Engines: 2 x GE CF 6-50D, 226.9kN Take-off weight: 97977 kg / 216003 lb Empty weight: 54000 kg / 119050 lb Wingspan: 39.3 m / 128 ft 11 in Length: 40.1 m / 131 ft 7 in Height: 14.7 m / 48 ft 3 in Wing area: 163.7 sq.m / 1762.05 sq ft Cruise speed: 750 km/h / 466 mph Range w/max.fuel: 740 km / 460 miles Crew: 2-3
Origins of the B-52 stemmed from a specification issued through the Air Material Command (AMC) on November 23rd, 1945, calling for a long-range, intercontinental, high-altitude strategic bomber. Specifications included an operating radius of 4,340 nautical miles, a speed of 260 knots at altitude of 43,000 feet, and a bombload capacity of 10,000 pounds. In February of 1946, the Boeing Aircraft Company, Consolidated Aircraft Corporation and the Glenn L. Martin Company all responded. Boeing’s team devised the Model 462 as a straight-wing, multi-engine design powered by 6 x Wright T35 Typhoon turboprop engines rated at 5,500shp each. On June 5th, 1946, Model 462 was selected and designated XB-52. A full-scale mockup contract was then awarded.
By now, the USAAF was already looking beyond the qualities of the Model 462, fearing that the aircraft was already rendered obsolete in its conventional design approach and could never reach the intended goals of the original specification – especially in terms of its range. As such, the USAAF cancelled their contract with Boeing and the Model 462 was dead.
Boeing chief engineer Ed Wells took the Model 462 and evolved a pair of smaller concepts with four turboprops each appearing in their respective 464-16 and 464-17 forms. Essentially, the 464-16 was a short-range bomber made to carry a greater bombload while the 464-17 was a long-range bomber made to carry a smaller bombload. Neither idea stuck with the USAAF as a replacement for the B-36 though interest did center on the 464-17 design. Several more concepts were developed but interest on the part of the Air Force was waning. The Model 464-29 appeared, complete with swept-back wings at 20 degrees and fitting 4 x Pratt & Whitney turboprop engines. Again, this concept failed to answer the key points of the specification which, by now, was ever-changing to include increased performance specs along with long range.
The Model 464-35 was another Boeing design team proposal fitting 4 x turboprop engines with contra-rotating propellers. Wing sweep was increased moreso than previous attempts, beginning to define the look of the Stratofortress. With in-flight refueling becoming more of a USAF operational norm, the design team now had some leeway in the overall size of their aircraft. Events in Europe in the latter part of the 1940’s pushed the XB-52 project forward, rewarding the Boeing Company with a hard-earned contract for a single mock-up and at least two flyable prototypes.
Upon a visit to Wright-Patterson AFB by the Boeing design team, it was learned that the USAF was now more interested in a jet-powered solution, seeing it as the only way to achieve the desired performance specs it required of the XB-52. In the course of a single weekend in a Dayton hotel room Ed Wells company set to work on new ideas for a Monday morning presentation. The resulting design combined elements of their Model 464-35 design with a four-engine, jet-powered medium bomber concept that had been brought along. The new aircraft became an eight-engine, Pratt & Whitney JT3 jet-powered heavy bomber with 35-degree swept wings. A small balsa wood model was constructed to further develop the idea and accompanied a detailed Model 464-49 design document of some 33 pages. The weekend effort paid off for Boeing as the USAF became greatly interested in the aircraft after Monday morning. The design was revised into the Model 464-67 and accepted for construction as two prototypes.
Eight engines were installed in twin pods hung under the 35 degree swept wing, and other unusual features included a vertical tail able to fold sideways to enter a hangar, wingtips that moved downwards 2.5 m (8 ft) as the wing tanks were filled, and four twin wheel landing trucks which can be swivelled for cross wind landings.
An XB-52 production contract reached Boeing executives on February 14th, 1951. The contract called for 13 B-52A models. The XB-52 became the first prototype constructed and this was followed by the YB-52. The YB-52 received this evaluation due to the funding coming from the Air Force’s Logistics Command.
The YB-52 beat the XB-52 to flight testing on March 15th, 1952. The XB-52 was rolled out on November 29th, 1951, under the cover of night for secrecy’s sake but a pneumatic system failure caused enough damage to the wing trailing edge for the aircraft to be rolled back inside for lengthy repairs. As such, the YB-52 achieved its first flight on April 15th, 1952 and did not experience any major setbacks. The XB-52 finally got airborne on October 2nd, 1952. Both the XB-52 and the YB-52 featured tandem seating cockpits with upward firing ejection seats.
B-52A
Only 3 B-52A’s built and the B-52B and RB-52B were in large-scale production for the U.S.A.F. in 1955. Both were equipped for flight refuelling. From the original order of 13 B-52A’s, ten were later earmarked for production as B-52B models. Compared to the twin prototypes, the three B-52A’s now featured the more conventional side-by-side cockpit seating arrangement in a revised forward fuselage along with the tail armament of 4 x 12.7mm Browning M3 machine guns. A distinguishing feature of A-models to B-models was the lack of a fully operational avionics suite. These aircraft were fitted with Pratt & Whitney J57-9W engines of 10,000lbf thrust each. The split-level cockpit featured seating for three on the upper deck and seating for two in the lower. The lower occupants were given downward-firing ejection seats. The tail gunner was removed from the rest of the crew and seated in his rear-facing turret station sans any type of ejection seat though the tail system could be ejected in the event of an accident. An unpressurized crawlspace was his only link to the front of the aircraft. In-flight refueling was accomplished via a boom connection above and behind the main flight deck. Other key additions included wing-mounted external fuel tanks to increase range and decrease “wing-flexing” across the span. Water injection was introduced to the J57 to assist in take-off. The two prototypes lacked the side-by-side cockpit seating arrangement and the in-flight refueling arrangement of the A-models and seating for the third upper deck crewmember (Electronic Warfare Officer – EWO). NB-52A – aka “The High and Mighty One” – was developed from the third B-52A flight test model. This aircraft (s/n 52-0003) was modified to act as the mothership in the launching of the experimental North American X-15 aircraft. NB-52B went on to become the longest flying B-52B airframe, ultimately seeing retirement in 2004.
By 1958 weight had increased, engines were rated at 5080 or 6124 kg (11,200 or 13500 lb) thrust with water injection, and new nav/bombing systems were fitted. While original B-52’s featured a 4 x 12.7mm collection of Browning M3 heavy machine guns in a rear turret, later production models switched over to a remote-controlled 1 x 20mm M61 cannon for self-defense. The tail armament was altogether removed in more modern Stratofortress forms with the onset of the missile age. However, it should noted that at least 2 Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 “Fishbed” aircraft were destroyed in the Vietnam War by the tail gunner, with these aircraft kills credited to SSgt Samuel O. Turner and A1C Albert E. Moore – both kills achieved just days apart in December of 1972 from B-52D’s. In B-52D models the tail gunner externally accessed the rear portion of the aircraft via an entry hatch. In the revised G-models, the gunner was allocated to the main crew cabin (complete with an ejection seat fitted to the upper flight deck and facing aft with the ECM operator) and operated the tail gun via the AGS-15 Fire Control System and radar.
The B-52B was, in actuality, the first true Stratofortress production model and was already in development while the previous aircraft forms were being refined. They more essentially A-models with fully operational avionics suites and Pratt & Whitney J57-P-29W, J57-P-29WA or J57-P-19W series engines all rated at 10,500lbf thrust. The J57-P-19W’s were differentiated by having their compressor blades made of titanium instead of steel. First flight of these aircraft was achieved in December of 1954. B-models were the first model in the series to achieve operational service on June 29th in 1955, this occurring with the 93rd Bombardment Wing (themselves achieving operational status on March 12th, 1956) of the United States Air Force and coming in the form of an RB-52B reconnaissance model. The defensive tail armament remained the 4 x 12.7mm machine gun mounts for a time though some 16 B-52B and 18 RB-52B models were fitted with a more potent 2 x M24A-1 20mm cannon array and an different fire control system. When this proved ineffective, the final production B-52B’s reverted back to the 4 x 12.7mm formation.
The B-52B was tested with atomic weapons on May 21st, 1956 – dropping a four megaton Mark 15 “Zombie” hydrogen bomb on the Bikini Atoll. Fifty B-52B models were produced in whole, with 27 of these being modified as special RB-52’s. RB-52’s represented reconnaissance-capable B-52B production models. These aircraft sported a crew of eight personnel and were fitted to accept specialized reconnaissance equipment in the form of a 300lb pod in their bomb bays, 40 ft fuel tanks in the wingtips, and up-rated J57 engines.
RB-52B
B-model combat load performance netted a top speed of 628 miles per hour with a service ceiling of 47,300 feet. The operational radius was equal to 3,576 miles.
The B-52C first flew on March 9, 1956 and officially came online in June of 1956 with 35 of the type seeing delivery. B-52C’s arrived with increased range thanks to improved fuel capacity made possible through larger external tanks. They were similar to B-models and operated with the same engine series. As this was the Cold War and the use of B-52’s in an all-out nuclear strike seemed all but imminent, the underside fuselage of B-52C models were painted over in an all-white scheme in an effort to reflect the thermal radiation inherent in a nuclear-induced explosion while their “tops” remained a natural metal finish. B-52B models were retrofitted with this white underside scheme. Bombloads for C-models topped 24,000lbs. B-52C’s were also reconnaissance capable though the RB-52C designation was never truly adopted for the type. Production of all C-models lasted through 1956.
B-52C
On December 7, 1955, the first B-52 built at the Wichita Division of Boeing was rolled out. This was the second source of supply.
The B-52D became the first definitive high-quantity production Stratofortress ultimately produced in 170 examples and achieving first flight on May 14th, 1956. D-models entered service in December of 1956 as dedicated long-range bombers and, unlike previous Stratofortress offerings, these aircraft would not feature the ability to carry the reconnaissance pod so there were no RB-52D designations handed out. B-52D’s were used extensively in the Vietnam air war where their expansive bomb bays could be put to good use. Vietnam-based B-52D models were distinguished by their overall forest camouflage schemes and black-colored, anti-searchlight fuselage undersides. Production was split between Seattle and Wichita plants.
In January 1957 three B-52 flew around the world non-stop refuelling mid-air several times. They covered 24,325 miles at an average speed of 530 mph.
KC-135 Stratotanker refuelling B-52
The B-52E first flew on October 17th, 1957, and followed D-models into operational service as improved Stratofortresses though they were quite similar to their predecessor. Improved air defenses across the Soviet Union forces a change to the high-level bombing strategy of early B-52’s. Therefore, the B-52E was developed into a low-level bomber. Additions included a revised bombing and navigation suite (AN/ASQ-38 – Raytheon AN/ASB-4 navigation and bombing radar) that would become standard on future Stratofortress production models. One hundred B-52E models were produced with the initial examples entering service in December of 1957. A single E-model was set aside for use as an in-flight test airframe and featured stabilizing canards.
The B-52F was similar to the preceding B-52E but sported Pratt & Whitney J57-43W series engines of 11,200lbf. Engine pods on each wing were revised to include their own water injection systems. F-models represented 89 production examples split between Seattle and Wichita to begin service in June of 1958. Among other refinements, these Stratofortresses featured new Pratt & Whitney J57-P-43W series turbojet engines. First flight was achieved on May 6th, 1958. First combat missions occurred via B-52F’s on June 18th, 1965.
While original B-52’s featured a 4 x 12.7mm collection of Browning M3 heavy machine guns in a rear turret, later production models switched over to a remote-controlled 1 x 20mm M61 cannon for self-defense. The tail armament was altogether removed in more modern Stratofortress forms with the onset of the missile age. However, it should noted that at least 2 Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 “Fishbed” aircraft were destroyed in the Vietnam War by the tail gunner, with these aircraft kills credited to SSgt Samuel O. Turner and A1C Albert E. Moore – both kills achieved just days apart in December of 1972 from B-52D’s. In B-52D models the tail gunner externally accessed the rear portion of the aircraft via an entry hatch. In the revised G-models, the gunner was allocated to the main crew cabin (complete with an ejection seat fitted to the upper flight deck and facing aft with the ECM operator) and operated the tail gun via the AGS-15 Fire Control System and radar.
By 1959 production switched to the B 52G, with a great increase in fuel capacity, the entire crew in the nose, a new structure with a short fin, and pylons for two Hound Dog missiles. The B 52G demonstrated the range potential of the type when, in December 1960, an aircraft of the 5th Bombardment Wing flew 10,000 miles (16,093 km) in 19 hrs 45 mins. The B-52G was the most numerous version built (193).
B-52G
The B-52G introduced sealed integral tank wings housing more fuel than previous models, as well as a shorter fin and a remotely controlled tail turret. Engines: Pratt & Whitney J57, 13,750 lb. Several tons were shaved off of the aircraft and crew accommodations were improved. The tail gunner was relocated to a new station within the main cabin area in the forward fuselage where the rest of the crew resided and given remote control of the turret. The vertical tail fin was shortened while the nose radome was lengthened and ailerons completely eliminated in favor of seven spoilers to provide for roll control. The G-model first flew on August 31st, 1958 and entering service on February 13th, 1959. G-models (55th production onwards) were outfitted with underwing pylons to accept the AGM-28/GAM-77 Hound Dog nuclear-tipped cruise missile – a feature also retrofitted on earlier production G-models. The Hound Dog missles could be run during takeoff to shorten the takeoff run. These Superfortresses were also later cleared to use 20 x AGM-69 SRAM nuclear missiles beginning in 1971. Four ADM-20 Quails (aircraft shaped decoys) were added in the bomb bay. Many B-52G’s would be sacrificed as part of the nuclear proliferation agreements between the United States and the Soviet Union beginning in 1992 while the surviving models were relegated to museum work. Production of G-models was handled by Wichita. The first 16 B-52Gs with cruise missiles became operational in December 1982.
The B-52H model was first flown on March 6th, 1961 and introduced into service on May 9th, 1961. The B-52H model and designed to carry the GAM-87 Skybolt ballistic missile on four external pylons. Though essentially similar to the G-models it replaced, the B-52H sported improved performance and fuel efficient Pratt & Whitney TF33-P-3 turbofan engines of 17,000lbf and a reinforced understructure for improved low-level bombing. Major systems and subsystems were revised or improved as well and the 4 x 12.7mm tail gun armament was officially replaced by the remote-controlled 1 x 20mm General Electric M61 Vulcan six-barrel Gatling cannon system (6,000rpm) tied to an Emerson ASG-21 fire control system. Ammunition supply was 1,242 rounds. The B-52H went on to utilize cruise missiles (the Skybolt missile was eventually cancelled before production), anti-ship missiles and unmanned drones in this fashion thanks to its heavy duty wing pylons. Light duty pylons were added later between the two engine pods on either wings and retrofitted to earlier H- and G-models. Like her G-model sisters, B-52H’s were cleared to use 20 x AGM-69 SRAM nuclear missiles beginning in 1971. Low-level operations became another improvement of this model type. The last of 102 B 52H bombers was delivered in 1963, bringing production to 744. The B 52H has the much more powerful TF33 engine, eliminating water injection and instead of four 12.7 mm (0.5 in) tail guns has a six barrel cannon. Surviving B 52Gs and B 52Hs are continually being fitted with updated systems for service into the second half of the 1980s.
Over a three-year period to 1963, the USAF spent $825 million on B-52 rework.
A total of 99 B-52Gs, carrying 12 external AGM-86B air-launched cruise missiles (ALCM), and 96 B-52Hs with 12 external and, later, eight internal ALCMs, were to be operational by 1990. The B-52Hs were to receive internally mounted common strategic rotary launchers (CSRL) in the late 1980s to carry the ALCMs, SRAMS, advanced cruise missiles, and free-fall nuclear weapons. The first ALCM equipped B-52G unit became operational in December 1982. Cruise-missile-carrying B-52Gs are being fitted with a strakelet fairing at the wing root leading edge for indentification purposes under the unratified SALT II agreement.
Most of the early B-52s were phased out by 1970, due to Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara’s mid-sixties decision to decrease the strategic bomber force.
Numerous B-52s were rebuilt with a ‘Big Belly’ to carry 84 bombs inside, plus 24 on triple tandem pylons under the wings. Modified B-52Ds, referred to as Big Belly, dropped aerial mines in the North Vietnamese harbors and river inlets in May 1972. In December of the same year, B-52Ds and B-52Gs began to bomb military targets in the Hanoi and Haiphong areas of North Vietnam.
A total of 744 were built between 1954 and 1962, including the XB-52 and YB-52 test models. During its peak involvement with Strategic Air Command, no fewer than 650 B-52 bombers made up 42 SAC bomber squadrons at 38 bases. In 2010, the Air Force maintains approximately 76 active and 20 reserve B-52’s from the 744 total that were produced. Production of all B-52’s lasted from 1952 through 1962 and handled at the Boeing Seattle, Washington and Wichita, Kansas plants.
A world air speed record was set on September 26th, 1958, in a B-52D reaching 560.705 miles per hour on a closed circuit covering 6,210 miles. The same day netted another air speed record of 597.675 miles per hour over a 3,105 mile course. On December 14th, 1960, a B-52G set a world air distance record by traveling 10,078.84 miles without refueling. This record was bested several years later on January 10th/11th, 1962, when a B-52H achieved 12,532.28 miles of unrefueled flight time in a journey from Japan to Spain. According to Boeing, this single flight alone broke some 11 speed and distance records.
The B-52 has also made it into pop culture as it was the aircraft featured in the 1964 Stanley Kubrick film “Dr Strangelove”.
B-52A Long-range heavy bomber. Engines: 8 x Pratt & Whitney J57-P-3 turbojets, 10,000 lb thrust Wingspan: 185 ft Lenght: 156 ft Wing area: 4000 sq.ft Loaded weight: approx. 400,000 lb. Max speed: approx. 650 m.p.h. Ceiling: 50,000 ft. Typical range: 6,000 miles with 25,000 lb bombs Armament; 4 x.50 in. machine-guns in tail-turret.
RB-52B Engines: 8 x Pratt & Whitney J57-P-3, 9700 lb Wingspan: 185 ft Length: 156 ft 6 in Height: 48 ft 3.5 in Wing area: 4000 sq.ft Empty weight: 175,000 lb Loaded weight: 350,000 lb Max speed: 630 mph Service ceiling: 50,000 ft Normal range: 3000 mi (with 75,000 lb bombload) Max range: 6000 mi (with 25,000 lb bombload) Armament: 2 x 20mm tail gun
B-52D Engines: 8 x Pratt & Whitney J57-P-29WA turbojet, 12,100 lb thrust. Armament: 4 x .50in mg. Bomb load: 27216 kg (60,000 lb). Range: 7400 sm / 11,860 km
B-52G Engines: 8 x Pratt & Whitney J57-P-43W turbojet, 11,200 lb, 49835 N thrust. Wing span: 185 ft 0 in (56.39 m). Wing area: 4000 sq.ft Length: 157 ft 7 in (48.03 m). Height: 40 ft 8 in (12.4 m). Armament: 4 x .50in mg. Max TO wt: 480,000 lb (217,720 kg). Max level speed: 660 mph (1062 kph) at 20,000 ft Range: 6480 nm / 12000 km Armament: 4x MG 12,7mm Bombload: 22680kg
B-52H Engines: eight Pratt & Whitney TF33-P-3/103 turbofans, 75.62 kN (17,000 lb st) Length 49.05m (160 ft 11 in) Height: 12.40m (40 ft 8 in) Wing span: 56.39m (185 ft 0 in) Wing area: 371.6 sq.m (4,000.0 sq ft). Empty weight: 83,250 kg (185,000 lb) Max Take-Off Weight: 229,088 kg (505,000 lb) Fuel capacity: 312,197 lb (141,610 kg), 47,975 U.S. gal (181,610 L) After inflight refuelling weight: 256738 kg (566,000 lb). Maximum speed Mach: 0.86, 1045 km/h (650 mph) Cruising speed high altitude: Mach 0.77, 819 km/h (509 mph) Penetration speed low altitude: 652-676 km/h (405-420 mph) Service ceiling: 16,765m (55,000 ft) Combat ceiling: 14326 m (47,000 ft). Range at high altitude with bombload: 16300 km (10,130 miles). Armament: up to 22,680 kg (50,000 lb) of ordnance, one Vulcan T 171 six barrel radar-directed 20mm cannon Crew: 6 102 built.
By December 1944 proposals had been received from Boeing, Convair, Martin and North American for medium bomber for tactical and operational level use. When Boeing began to design the Boeing B 47 Stratojet jet bomber in 1943 it was very like a jet version of the B 29. The configuration changed several times and eventually the prototype was given a wing and tail swept at 35 degrees to postpone high subsonic drag rise, with six jets in pylon mounted pods. Another unusual feature was the bicycle landing gear.
As it had for the B-36, the Truman Administration’s stringent financial restrictions worked in favor of the B-47. Pressed for money, the Air Force decided to buy more B-47s instead of purchasing additional B-50s or future B-54s, since neither one of those rather expensive bombers had any growth potential. Hence, even though the B-47 was yet to fly, the initial production order of 1948 was increased in mid-1949. The subsequent Korean War, rising world tensions, and mounting urgency to build an atomic deterrent force raised the tempo of the B-47 program. In December 1950, the Air Force foresaw a monthly production of 150 B-47s, but still recommended changes, making it almost impossible to settle on an acceptable type.
Even though its capabilities removed the B-47 from the tactical/operational level to the strategic arena, the USAAF was still interested in the more limited type, and the other three 1944 submissions reached hardware form.
The new design did away with the danger of fuselage-mounted or in-wing-mounted engines’ disturbing the airflow over the wing or making a mess of things if they shed turbine blades either because of malfunction or combat damage. The six engines were mounted two to a pod about halfway out under the wings, with singles near the end of the wings. Another innovation was to mount the main landing gear under the fuselage one behind the other, in tandem. Spindly, diminutive outrigger landing gear halfway out along the wings kept the whole thing from toppling over on the ground.
The first of two Boeing XB-47 prototype (46-065) was rolled out of Plant 2 at Boeing Field, Seattle on 12 September 1947. First flown on 17 December 1947, (by Robert Robbins and Scott Osler) 46-065 was followed by 46-066 on 21 July 1948.
XB-47 46-065
Because the early jet engines did not develop large amounts of thrust at low speed, the prototype had provision for 18 assisted take-off rockets. Nine on each side of the fuselage.
Early tests were not without incident. Pilot Scott Osler was killed when the canopy came off at high speed. The co-pilot landed the aircraft and the canopy was redesigned.
Delivery of the B 47A began in December 1950 and these impressive machines introduced a new level of performance, complication and technology to military aviation. The tail guns were sighted from the nose, and the two pilots sat in a tandem fighter like cockpit with access from a ventral door and stair¬way. Enormous fuel loads could be housed in the fuselage and the B 47B and later models carried giant 5683¬ litre (1,500 US gal) drop tanks under the wings. Various rocket installations could boost the long take off, and a large braking parachute helped arrest the landing.
First flying on 26 April 1951, 398 B-47B were built. Most were modernised the B-47E or B-47H standard.
In 1951 alone, the Air Force took delivery of 204 B-47Bs, none of which were suitable for combat. The aircraft’s canopy was unsafe; the B-47B had no ejection seats (a deficiency shared by 200 successive B-47s); the bombing and navigation system was unreliable; a new tail defense system was needed; and the jet engines were creating unique development problems such as fuel boil-off at high altitudes, which reduced the aircraft’s range-already shorter than anticipated. In sum, the hasty production of an aircraft as revolutionary as the B-47 proved to be costly, generating extensive, unavoidable modification projects like Baby Grand, Turn Around, High Noon, and Ebb Tide. Yet once accomplished, the B-47 modifications worked.
Beginning in 1951, two XB-47Ds were modified from B-47Bs as purely experimental platforms, with a Wright YT49-W-1 turboprop engine spinning a four-paddle prop, replacing each of the inboard two-jet pods. Difficulties with engine development delayed first flight of the XB-47D until 26 August 1955. The aircraft’s performance was comparable to that of a conventional B-47, and its reversible propellers shortened the landing roll, but the USAF did not follow up the idea.
XB-47D
The first swept wing jet bomber to be built in quantity was the Boeing B 47 Stratojet that began to equip the USAFs 306th (Medium) Bomb Wing in mid 1951.
Finally deployed overseas in mid-1953, the B-47s totally replaced the obsolete, atomic-carrier B-50s by the end of 1955, when new B-47 production models were delivered that could carry larger fuel loads and thus had greater range. After the B-47 demonstrated that it was rugged enough for low-altitude bombing, some of the aircraft were again modified to satisfy a new set of requirements levied in 1955. These modifications also worked, and in 1957, the Air Force publicly demonstrated its new low-altitude, strategic bombing tactics, an achievement marking the beginning of an era in aeronautics. At the peak of its utilization in 1957, Strategic Air Command had some 1,800 in service. Despite the fuel capacity the range was too short for SAC’s main global missions, but over 2,200 Strato¬jets were delivered, mainly of the B¬47E type, and they operated from the UK, North Africa, Pacific islands and many other areas.
The first of the 1340 B-47E version built flew in January 1953 with the B-47E and RB-47E reconnaissance-bomber (which has an extended fuselage nose which increases overall length to 112 ft 8 in and contains a heated, air-conditioned camera compartment) still in production in 1955.
B-47E
In 1955 Strategic Air Command had no less than 234 Boeing RB-47E Stratojet photo-reconnaissance aircraft. They could be equipped with between seven and eleven large cameras for taking panoramic, overlapping, vertical, sideways or frontal photographs. Flying at 39,000 ft / 12,000 m the RB-47E could photograph and area of 100,000 sq.mi in three hours.
RB-47E Stratojet
The QB-47E and ETB-47E are radio-controlled drone and crew trainer variants respectively.
Many were RB 47E and RB-47H reconnaissance versions or ERB 47 ‘ferret’ Elint (electronic intelligence) platforms. The ERB-47H had a pressurised compartment for three electronic operators in its bulged bomb-bay.
Despite its convoluted start, the B-47 program proved successful. The aircraft served in various roles and was involved in many experimental projects, some connected to the development of more sophisticated atomic weapons, like Brass Ring, or with the development of air refueling or other endeavors of great significance to the Air Force. Strategic Air Command’s last B-47s went into storage in early 1966, while a few converted B-47 bombers and reconnaissance models remained in the Air Force until the end of the 1960s. The last B-47 was retired from active duty in 1969.
Including the main training wing, the 2032 B-47s built equipped 30 Bomb Wings.
In 1956, a U.S. Boeing B-47 Stratojet was loaned to the Royal Canadian Air Force to flight test the Iroquois for use in the CF-105. Canadair, the sub-contractor, attached an Iroquois to the right side of the bomber’s rear fuselage, near the tail, simply because there was no other place to mount it. Designated CL-52 by Canadair, it was a nightmare to fly, since the thrust was asymmetrical; this created great problems for flight control. After the Arrow project was cancelled, the B-47B/CL-52, which had logged about 35 hours of engine flight tests, was returned to the U.S and subsequently scrapped. The CL-52 was the only B-47 used by any foreign service.
B-47A Engines: 6 x J47-GE-11m 5200 lb thrust Number built: 10
B-47B Engines: 6 x General Electric J47-GE-23 turbojet, 5800 lb thrust. Wing span: 116 ft (35.36m). Length: 108 ft (32.92m). Wing area: 1428 sq.ft (132.66sq.m). Max wt: 185,000 lb (83,914 kg). Max speed: 617 mph @ 10,600 ft. Range: 3000+ sm. Armament: 2 x .50 in mg. Payload: 20,000 lb internal bomb load. Crew: 3.
B-47E Engines: 6 x General Electric J47-GE-25 turbojets, 5970 lb JATO capacity: 33 1000 lb thrust Wing span: 116 ft 0 in (35.36 m). Length: 109 ft 10 in (33.48 m). Height: 27 ft 11 in (8.51 m). Wing area: 1428 sq.ft Empty weight: 79,000 lb / 35,863 kg Max TO wt: 206,700 lb (9,760 kg). External fuel: 2 x 148 Imp.Gal underwing Max level speed: 606 mph (975 kph) Speed: 650 mph at 20,000 ft Service ceiling: 45,000 ft Un-refuelled range: 2000 miles / 3219 km Armament: 2 x 20mm cannon Bombload: 20,000 lb Crew: 3
B 47E-II Stratojet Engines: six 2722 kg (6,000 lb) thrust General Electric J47 GE 25 or 25A turbojets (wet rating). Max speed: 975 km/h (606 mph) at medium altitudes. Service ceiling: 12345 m (40,500 ft). Range with bombload: 6440 km (4,000 miles). Weights: empty 36631 kg (80,756 lb) Maximum take off 104330 kg (230,000 lb). Wing span: 35.36 m (116 ft 0 in). Length: 33.50 m (109 ft 10 in). Height: 8.51 m (27 ft 11 in). Wing area: 132.7 sq.m (1,428.0 sq ft). Armament: two 20 mm guns in tail turret; internal bombload of 9072 kg (20, 000 lb).
B-47E-IV Stratojet Engines: 6 x General Electric J47-GE-25 turbojets, 7,200lbs of thrust Wingspan: 116.14ft (35.40m) Length: 108.01ft (32.92m) Empty Weight: 79,073lbs (35,867kg) Maximum Take-Off Weight: 229,999lbs (104,326kg) Maximum Speed: 600mph (965kmh; 521kts) Maximum Range: 3,870miles (6,228km) Rate-of-Climb: 4,350ft/min (1,326m/min) Service Ceiling: 40,499ft (12,344m) Armament: 2 x 20mm cannon Bombload: 25,000lb Accommodation: 3 or 4
When the changing fortunes of war made it clear to the US Navy that they would need to attack the Japanese home islands, concern was expressed at the need to deploy carriers within easy range of large numbers of land-based aircraft. If the US Navy had available a long-range fighter/fighter-bomber, then it might be possible to engage the enemy without the need to bring the carriers within striking range of land-based defence aircraft. The requirement for such a category of aircraft was communicated to Boeing, which immediately began its design under the designation Boeing Model 400. Submitted to the US Navy, Boeing’s design study was sufficiently interesting to warrant the award of a contract for three XF8B-1 prototypes on 4 May 1943. The first of these aircraft made its initial flight during November 1944, and was immediately seen to be the largest single-seat piston-engine fighter to be built in the USA. In fact, it subsequently proved to be one of the most powerful single-engine fighters to be developed by any nation involved in World War II, for its powerplant consisted of a Pratt & Whitney XR-4360-10 radial piston engine, which had four banks of seven cylinders, the 2237kW power output being used to drive two three-blade contra-rotating metal propellers. Only the first prototype was completed and flown before the end of World War 11, but although the remaining two prototypes were completed and handed over after VJ-Day, the overriding interest in the development of turbine-engined aircraft meant that further test and evaluation of the XF8B-1s was abandoned.
XF8B Crew: 1 Engine: 1 x Pratt-Whitney R-4360-10, 2237kW Take-Off Weight: 9302 kg / 20508 lb Empty Weight: 6132 kg / 13519 lb Wingspan: 16.46 m / 54 ft 0 in Length: 13.18 m / 43 ft 3 in Height: 4.95 m / 16 ft 3 in Wing Area: 45.43 sq.m / 489.00 sq ft Max. Speed: 695 km/h / 432 mph Cruise Speed: 306 km/h / 190 mph Ceiling: 11430 m / 37500 ft Range: 4500 km / 2796 miles Armament: 6 x 12.7mm machine-guns or 6 x 20mm cannons, 1450kg of weapons
The B-50’s development was approved in 1944, when the aircraft was known as the B-29D. The Army Air Forces (AAF) wanted a significantly improved B-29 that could carry heavy loads of conventional weapons faster and farther. As World War II ended, the production of thousands of B-29s was cancelled. The B-29D survived, redesignated B-50 in December 1945, the improved bomber was now for the atomic role. The decision was pending availability of the intercontinental B-36 or of another bomber suitable for the delivery of atomic weaponry.
First flying on 25 June 1947 and looking identical to the B-29 Superfortress, the B-50 retained just 25 percent of the B-29’s original components. Changes distinguishing the B-50 from its predecessor included an all new aluminum wing design that made the aircraft more resilient and efficient. Vertical tail surfaces were now designed to fold down, allowing the massive bomber the capability to be housed in air force hangars.
A four-engine heavy bomber powered by the Pratt & Whitney 3,500 horsepower R-4360-35 Wasp Major radial engine produced in about 750 examples from November 1949 up until February 1953. Accommodations for crewmen included a total of ten personnel with access to 12 x .50 caliber machine guns in remotely-controlled barbettes and a 20mm cannon. Up to 20,000lbs of internal ordnance could be carried.
Initial production models were the B-50A and B-50B.
Photo-reconnaissance versions included the RB-50E, F and G, and the TB-50D and TB-50H were navigation trainers.
While the short-range B-50 was immediately recognized as a stopgap measure, the magnitude of the aircraft’s development problems proved unexpected. The B-50’s first difficulties stemmed from its bomb bay which, like that of the B-29, was too small to house the new bomb and its required components. The fast development of special weapons created more complications, since the individual components of every single type of bomb had to be relocated within the bomb bay’s narrow confines.
The B-50 soon exhibited engine malfunctions. Then, cracking of the metal skin on the trailing edge of the wings and flaps dictated extensive modifications. While these problems were being resolved, new requirements were levied on the aircraft. In 1949, as the proposed RB-36 remained a long way off, and because of the older RB-29’s deficiencies in speed, range, and altitude, some B-50s had to be fitted for the reconnaissance role. Fuel tank overflows, leaking fuel check valves, failures of the engine turbo-chargers, generator defects, and the like continued to plague every B-50 version.
Contrary to plans, most B-50s came off the production lines without the receiver end of the new air-to-air refueling system being developed by Boeing. Additional, and successful, modifications ensued. Nevertheless, the Strategic Air Command (SAC) had no illusions. The B-50, along with the B-36 (first delivered in June 1948), would be obsolete in 1951. That the B-50 did not start leaving the SAC inventory before 1953 was due to the production problems and many modifications of its replacement: the subsonic B-47.
Boeing B-50D
B-50’s would eventually be replaced by the jet-powered B-47 Stratojet by 1954, though many would go on to be modified as TB-50H crew and pilot trainers, the KB-50 aerial refueling aircraft and the RB-50 photographic reconnaissance platform.
Boeing KB-50K
The KB-50 refuelling tankers had two J47 turbojets added in underwing pods, and were redesignated KB-50K.
B-50 ‘Luckey Lady II’ encircled the world non-stop in 1949, refuelled four times
RB-50 ELINT
Still operational in 1955, the B-50D usually carries two 700-gal. fuel tanks or 4,000 lb. bombs under outer wings. All B-50’s would be retired from service by 1965.
B-50A Engines: 4 x Pratt & Whitney R-4360-35 Wasp Major, 2610kW Take-off weight: 76389 kg / 168410 lb Empty weight: 36764 kg / 81051 lb Wingspan: 43.05 m / 141 ft 3 in Length: 30.18 m / 99 ft 0 in Height: 9.96 m / 32 ft 8 in Wing area: 161.55 sq.m / 1738.91 sq ft Max. speed: 620 km/h / 385 mph Cruise speed: 378 km/h / 235 mph Ceiling: 11280 m / 37000 ft Range: 7483 km / 4650 miles Armament: 12 x 12.7mm machine-guns, 1 x 20mm cannon, 9000kg of bombs Crew: 11
B-50D Engines: 4 x Pratt & Whitney R-4360-35 Wasp Major, 3500hp Wingspan: 141 ft. 3 in (43.10m) Wing area: 1768 sq.ft Length: 100.00ft (30.48m) Height: 34.58ft (10.54m) Empty Weight: 80,601lbs (36,560kg) Maximum Take-Off Weight: 173,001lbs (78,472kg) Maximum Speed: 380mph (611kmh; 330kts) Cruise speed: 330 mph Maximum Range: 4,896 miles (7,880km) Service Ceiling: 36,713ft (11,190m) Armament: 12 x 12.7mm machine guns, 1 x 20mm cannon Internal bombload: 20,000lb Accommodation: 10
In March 1936, a team lead by Lysle Wood began work on an updated XB-15, the Model 316. This plane featured the all-glass nose that would make the B-29 distinctive. Designated the Y1B-20, it was 17 percent heavier than the eventual B-29. The Army was not interested. Boeing continued heavy bomber development in 1938 and 1939 with Models 330, 333, 333A, 333B, 334, and 334A. In August 1939 they began work on the Model 341, featuring a much improved wing: the Boeing Model 115 airfoil. Around 1938, General Henry H. ‘Hap’ Arnold, the head of the Army Air Corps, was growing alarmed at the possibility of war in Europe and in the Pacific. To prepare the Air Corps, Arnold created a special committee chaired by Brigadier General W. G. Kilner; one of its members was Charles Lindbergh. After a tour of Luftwaffe bases, Lindbergh became convinced that Nazi Germany was far ahead of other European nations. In a 1939 report, the committee made a number of recommendations, including development of new long-range heavy bombers. When war broke out in Europe, Arnold requested design studies from several companies on a Very Long-Range bomber capable of travelling 5,000 miles (8,000 km). Part of Arnold’s motivation for these studies was the fear that Britain might fall to the Nazis. In that event, it would be imperative that the Army Air Force have a bomber capable of flying round-trip from the U.S. East Coast to Europe to strike targets on the European mainland. Approval was granted on December 2. This request, R-40B, fitted perfectly with the research Boeing was doing at the time. On 29 January 1940, the Air Corps issued a request for proposals for a much larger bomber, which was to have the range for operation over the Pacific; this bomber would serve in the inevitable war with Japan. Four firms submitted design studies: the Boeing XB-29, Lockheed XB-30, Douglas XB-31, and Consolidated XB-32. Douglas and Lockheed soon withdrew, in part because Boeing was well ahead of them in the design process. On 6 September 1940 contracts were awarded to Boeing and Consolidated (later Convair) for the construction and development of two (later three) prototypes of their respective designs. Convair’s XB-32 Dominator was the first to fly, on 7 September 1942, but extensive development delayed its entry into service.
In early 1940, the Army Air Corps analysed the performance of bombers used in Europe against the Luftwaffe, and requested that the B-29 have self-sealing fuel tanks, more machine guns, and higher-caliber guns. Boeing incorporated these into a redesign of the Model 341, and resubmitted it to the Army Air Corps as Model 345, which would become the XB-29. Impressed by the mock-up completed in the spring 1941, the Army Air Corps had placed a massive order for 1,500 B-29s, a year before the prototype would fly for the first time on September 21, 1942. A long-range bomber was urgently needed, so service testing proceeded largely in tandem with production. The first B-29 rolled off the assembly line two months after the first service test flight. In under a year, the B-29 was in full-scale production. The USAAC’s specification had called for a speed of 644km/h, so the XB-29 had a high aspect ratio cantilever monoplane wing mid-set on the circular-section fuselage. Because such a wing would entail a high landing speed, the wide-span trailing-edge flaps were of the Fowler type which effectively increased wing area by almost 20%, thus allowing a landing to be made at lower speed. Electrically retractable tricycle landing gear was provided and, as originally proposed by Boeing, pressurised accommodation was included for the flight crew. In addition, a second pressurised compartment just aft of the wing gave accommodation to crew members who, in the third XB-29 and production aircraft, sighted defensive gun turrets from adjacent blister windows. The crew and aft compartments were connected by a crawl-tunnel which passed over the fore and aft bomb bays. The tail gunner was accommodated in a third pressurised compartment, but this was isolated from the other crew positions. Rather than the traditional bulky manned gun turrets, Boeing used small, remote-control units ‘networked’ together with an analog computer that compensated for factors such as air temperature and bullet drop. This system was very difficult to develop, but it proved effective. Each gun was served by a 1,000 round bullet belt.
The powerplant consisted of four Wright R-3350 Cyclone twin-row radial engines, each with two General Electric turbochargers mounted one in each side of the engine nacelle.
Prototype production was followed by 14 YB-29 service test aircraft, the first of these flying on 26 June 1943. Deliveries of YB-29s began almost immediately to the 58th Very Heavy Bombardment Wing (VHBW), a unit which had been established on 1 June in advance of the first flight. B-29 production was the most diverse aircraft manufacturing project undertaken in the USA during World War II, with literally thousands of sub-contractors supplying components or assemblies to the four main production plants: Boeing at Renton and Wichita; Bell at Marietta, Georgia; and Martin at Omaha, Nebraska.
Because of its highly advanced design, challenging requirements, and immense pressure for production, development was deeply troubled. The first prototype crashed during testing, killing the entire crew and several ground personnel. Changes to the production craft came so often and so fast that in early 1944, B-29s would leave the production lines and fly directly to modification depots for extensive rebuilds to incorporate the latest changes. This ‘battle of Kansas’ nearly sank the program, which was only saved by General Hap Arnold’s direct intervention. It would still be nearly a year before the aircraft was operated with any sort of reliability.
The most common cause of maintenance headaches and catastrophic failures, even more so than the advanced gunnery system, was the engine. Though the Wright R-3350 would later become a trustworthy workhorse in large piston-engined aircraft, early models were beset with dangerous reliability problems. It had an impressive power-to-weight ratio, but this came at a heavy cost to durability. Worse, the cowling Boeing designed for the engine was too close (out of a desire for improved aerodynamics), and the early cowl flaps caused problematic flutter and vibration when open in most of the flight envelope.
These weaknesses combined to make an engine that would overheat regularly when carrying combat loads; it frequently swallowed its own valves. The resulting engine fires were exacerbated by a crankcase designed mostly of magnesium alloy. The heat was often so intense the main spar burned through in seconds, resulting in catastrophic failure of the wing. This problem would not be fully cured until the aircraft was re-engined with the more powerful Pratt & Whitney R-4360 ‘Wasp Major’ in the B-29D/B-50 program, which arrived too late for World War II. Pilots, including the present-day pilots of the Commemorative Air Force’s Fifi, describe flight after takeoff as being an urgent struggle for airspeed. Radial engines need that airflow to keep cool, and failure to get up to speed as soon as possible could result in an engine failure and risk of fire.
The initial plan was to use B-29s to attack Japan from airfields in southern China, with the main base in India, and to attack other targets in the region from China and India as needed. This was an extremely costly scheme, as there was no overland connection available between India and China, and all the supplies had to be flown over the Himalayas. The first B-29s started to arrive in India in early April, 1944. The first B-29 flight to airfields in China (over the Himalayas, or “The Hump”) took place on 24 April 1944. The first B-29 combat mission was flown on 5 June 1944, with 77 out of 98 planes launched from India bombing the railroad shops in Bangkok (5 B-29s were lost to non-battle causes).
B-29 bomb aimer
On June 15, 1944, 47 B-29s launched from Chengtu in China bombed the Imperial Iron and Steel Works at Yawata, Japan. This was the first attack on Japanese islands since the Doolittle raid in April, 1942. The first B-29 combat loss occurred during this raid, with 1 B-29 destroyed on the ground by Japanese fighters after an emergency landing. Because of the extreme cost of operations, the raids against Japan from Chinese airfields continued at relatively low intensity. Japan was bombed on: 7 July 1944 (14 B-29s), 29 July (70+), 10 August (24), 20 August (61), 8 September (90), 26 September (83), 25 October (59), 12 November (29), 21 November (61), 19 December (36) and for the last time on 6 January 1945 (49). B-29s were withdrawn from airfields in China by the end of January, 1945. Throughout this period B-29 raids were also launched from China and India against many other targets throughout South-East Asia. However, the entire B-29 effort was gradually shifted to the new bases in the Marianas, with the last B-29 combat mission from India flown on March 29, 1945.
The need to use inconvenient bases in China for attacks against Japan ceased after the capture of the Marianas islands in 1944. On the islands of Tinian, Saipan and Guam a series of airfields were built, which became the main bases for the large B-29 raids against Japan in the final year of the war. The islands could be easily supplied by ship. The first B-29 arrived on Saipan on 12 October 1944, and the first combat mission was launched from there on 28 October 1944, with 14 B-29s attacking the Truk atoll. The first mission against Japan from bases in the Marianas was flown on 24 November 1944, with 111 B-29s sent to attack Tokyo. From that point ever more intense raids were launched regularly until the end of the war. These attacks succeeded in devastating all large Japanese cities and gravely damaged Japan’s war industries.
Perhaps the most recognized B-29 is the Enola Gay, which dropped the atomic bomb ‘Little Boy’ on Hiroshima on 1945 August 6. The Bockscar, also a B-29, dropped ‘Fat Man’ on Nagasaki three days later.
On Sunday 2 April 1944, the first B-29 Superfortress landed in Calcutta, India. It belonged to 58 Wing, 20th Bomber Command of the USAAF and had flown almost around the world, from the Boeing aircraft plant Wichita, Kansas to England, and then onto North Africa and the Orient. The plan was for B-29s to begin the strategic war against Japan.
On 16 June 1944 the US War Department announced the first wings of new US B-29 Superfortress bombers had taken off from bases in India, Burma and China, and have flown a massive raid on an “important target in Japan” from an altitude of 20,000 ft.
The B-29 was used in World War II only in the Pacific Theatre. It was later used in the Korean War, over the course of which they flew 20,000 sorties and dropped 200,000 tons (180,000 tonnes) of bombs. 3970 of the aircraft were built before they were retired in 1960. The B-29 was soon made obsolete by the development of the jet engine. With the arrival of the mammoth B-36, the B-29 suffered its first ignominy by being classified a medium bomber with the new Air Force. However, the later B-29D/B-50 variant was good enough to handle auxiliary roles such as air-sea rescue, electronic intelligence gathering, and even air-to-air refuelling. It was replaced in its primary role during the early 1950s by the Boeing B-47 Stratojet, which in turn was replaced by the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress. The final active duty variants were phased out in the mid 1960s. B-29 production totalled 1,644 from Boeing’s Wichita plant, with 668 built by Bell and 536 by Martin. The Renton plant produced only the B-29A variant, with a 12in wider span, later marks of the 2,200hp Wright R 3350 engines, changes in fuel capacity, and the addition of a four gun forward dorsal turret and armament: production continued until May 1946 and totalled 1,122 aircraft. The designation B-29B related to 311 of the aircraft built by Bell. These were reduced in weight by removal of all defensive armament except for the tail guns, which were then unmanned, being aimed and fired automatically by an AN/APG-15B radar fire-control system. The production total of 3970 B-29s of all versions saw a wide variety of employment in the post-war years, operating under several designations. A number of B-29s were used operationally during the Korean War.
B 29s were followed by several hundred of many versions of the B 50, with more powerful engines and other changes. These saw action only as tankers in the Vietnam War, but B 29s operated throughout the Korean War, the 22nd and 92nd Bomb Groups opening strategic missions as early as 13 July 1950. Though never more than 99 B 29s were on strength, the two groups flew 21,000 sorties and dropped 167,100 tons, more than the tonnage dropped by B 29s in World War II.
The US Operations Crossroads, with a budget of $1.3 billion, was to determine atomic bomb effectiveness using three tests. The first, Able, was air dropped, Baker detonated under water. Charlie, the third was later cancelled. For the first test site the Navy chose Bikini atoll. On 1 July 1946, the Able bomb was loaded into a B-29 Superfortress named ‘Dave’s Dream’. Just before 9am the bomb was released, exploding 518 ft above Bikini lagoon. The 23 kiloton test was a success, generating a 100,000 degree Fahrenheit fireball with the mushroom cloud reaching 40,000 ft.
B 29s force landed in Soviet territory were dissected in minute detail, and the Tupolev design bureau built first a simple transport, the Tu 70, followed in July 1947 by the first Tu 4 bomber. This was a B 29 except in having 23 mm cannon in its five twin turrets. About 400 were built, but they did not see action; their main importance was that they were the starting point for all today’s Tupolev strategic turboprop and jet bombers. Some of these remained in service into the 1960s in the Soviet Union. All but one of the Tu-4s were scrapped in the 1960s. The lone example of a Tu-4 known to exist today is located at the Yuri Gagarin Air Force Academy near Moscow, as a static display. This particular airplane was tasked with bombing the Budapest headquarters of the Hungarian rebel movement during the 1956 rebellion; but although the mission was rehearsed it was never put into play.
The last RB-29 was shot down by two MiG-15s above the east coast of Hokkaido, Japan, on 4 September 1954. The aircraft allegedly flew over Soviet territory on the Pacific coast, according to the Soviet. Ten or eleven of the crew survived.
The KB-29 was the tanker version of the B-29, the SB-29 the search & rescue version, carrying a lifeboat; the DB-29 was a drone controller, the TB-29 a trainer, the RB-29 a reconnaissance aircraft. Some B-29s were also used as launch aircraft for research aircraft like the X-1 and X-2.
Boeing eventually converted about 100 to KB-29 tankers.
The KB-29P flying boom flight refuelling tanker version and the SB-29 search and rescue aircraft were still in service in 1955. The SB-29 equipped to carry an A.3 remote control lifeboat under its fuselage.
Boeing KB-29P
Eventually 4221 B-29 were built.
Events:
1 June 1943 The USAAF’s 58th Heavy Bombardment Wing was established. This wing was equipped with Boeing B-29 superfortresses for strategic attack on Japan.
15 June 1944 47 B-29s bombed the imperial iron and steel works at Yawata Japan.
20 November 1945 A new non-stop distance record of 7,916 miles was set by B-29 bomber “Pacusan Dreamboat” after flying from the island of Guam to Washington DC.
1 November 1954 The last B-29 in front-line service, based at Kadena, was retired. The B-29s were replaced by the B-47.
B-29 Engines: Four Wright R-3350-21 or -23 “Cyclone” radials each equipped with two type B-11 turbo superchargers; later B-29 models fitted with -23A, -41 or -57 Cyclone radials Engine gear ratio: 20:7 (.35) Take-off power: 2,200 hp at 2,600 rpm w/ manifold pressure of 47.5 in. Military power: 2,200 hp at 2,600 rpm w/ manifold pressure of 47.5 in at 25,000 ft. Normal rated power: 2,000 hp at 2,400 rpm at sea level Idling speed: 600 +/- 50 rpm (propeller at increase rpm) Propellers: Manufacturer: Hamilton Standard Propeller division of United Aircraft Corp. Type: 4-blade, full feathering Diameter: 16 ft. 7 in. Span: 141 ft. 2.76 in. Length: 99 ft. 0 in. Height: 27 ft. 9 in. (at rest) 27 ft. 6.7 in. (taxi position) Maximum fuselage diameter: 9 ft. 6 in. Height to centerline of propeller hub (taxi position) Inboard engines: 9 ft. 5.6 in. Outboard engines: 10 ft. 8 in. Ground clearance of inboard propeller tips (taxi position): 14.1 in. Airfoil section: Boeing 117 Root: 22% Tip: 7% Chord root: 17 ft. Chord tip (70 feet 10 inches from centerline of fuselage): 7 ft. 5 in. Incidence: 4 degrees Dihedral: 4 degrees 29 minutes 23 seconds Sweepback: 7 degrees 1 minute 26 seconds Stabiliser: Span: 43 ft. Maximum chord: 11 ft. 2.4 in. Areas: Wing (less ailerons): 1609.68 sq. ft. Wing (flaps extended, plus ailerons): 2070.88 sq. ft. Alierons (total, including tabs): 129.2 sq. ft. Flaps (total): 332 sq. ft. Stabilizer and elevators (including tabs): 333 sq. ft. Elevators (total including tabs): 115 sq. ft. Elevator trim tabs (total): 10.12 sq. ft. Vertical fin: 131.9 sq. ft. Dorsal fin: 40.6 sq. ft. Rudder (including tab): 65.5 sq. ft. Rudder trim tab: 5.79 sq. ft. Weight: 133,500 lbs. (maximum overload) 105,000 lbs. gross Armament: 10 or 12 .50-cal. machine guns and one 20mm cannon plus 20,000 lbs. of bombs. Fuel Tank Capacities: Regular wing (22 cells): 5608 US gals. (4669 Imp.) Auxiliary center wing (four cells): 1333 US gals. (1110 Imp.) Auxiliary bomb bay (four cells): 2560 US gals. (2133 Imp.) Net Total capacity: 9501 US gals. (7912 Imp.) Crew: Normal crew of 10 consists of Pilot, Co-Pilot, Flight Engineer, Bombardier, Navigator, Radio Operator, (2) Side Gunners, Top Gunner, and Tail Gunner Maximum speed: 357 mph at 25,000 ft. Cruising speed: 220 mph Range: 5,600 miles maximum ferry range and 3,250 miles with 20,000 lbs. of bombs Service ceiling: 33,600 ft.
B-29 Crew: 10 Engines: 4 x Wright R-3350-23-23A/-41 Cyclone 18, 1641kW Take-off weight: 56245 kg / 124000 lb Empty weight: 31815 kg / 70140 lb Wingspan: 43.05 m / 141 ft 3 in Length: 30.18 m / 99 ft 0 in Height: 9.02 m / 29 ft 7 in Wing area: 161.27 sq.m / 1735.89 sq ft Max. speed: 576 km/h / 358 mph Cruise speed: 370 km/h / 230 mph Ceiling: 9710 m / 31850 ft Range w/max.fuel: 5230 km / 3250 miles Range w/max.payload: 2880 km / 1790 miles Armament: 11 x 12.7mm machine-guns, 9000kg of bombs
B-29A Engines: 4 x Wrigth R-3350-23 (supercharged radial engines), 1600kW/ 2,200 hp Wing Span: 142.26ft (43.36m) Length: 99.02ft (30.18m) Height: 29.56ft (9.01m) Wing Area: 161.27 sq.m Empty Weight: 71,361lbs (32,369kg) Max.Weight: 141,102lbs (64,003kg) Maximum Speed: 358mph (576kmh; 311kts) Service Ceiling: 31,808ft (9,695m) Maximum Range: 4,100miles (6,598km) Rate-of-Climb: 526ft/min (160m/min) Wing loading: 337 kg/sq.m Armament: 1 x 20mm, 12 x mg 12.7mm, Bombload: 20,000lbs / 9072 kg Crew: 10 (pilot, co-pilot, flight engineer, bombardier, navigator, radio operator, side gunners (two), top gunner, and tail gunner)
B 29A Engines: 4 x four 2,200 hp (1641 kW) Wright R 3350 57 (or related) Duplex Cyclone 18 cylinder radials. Wing span: 43.05 m (141 ft 3 in). Length: 30.18 m (99 ft 0 in). Height: 9.02 m (29 ft 7 in). Wing area: 161.28 sq.m (1,736.0 sq ft). Weight empty: 31816 kg (70,140 lb). MTOW: 64002 kg (141,100 lb). Maximum speed: 576 km/h (358 mph) at high altitudes. Service ceiling: 9750 m (32,000 ft). Range with maximum bombload: 5230 km (3,250 miles). Armament: bombload of 9072 kg (20, 000 lb), plus 10 12.7 mm (0,5 in) machine guns and one 20 mm cannon in five turrets. Crew: 10.
B 29B Engines: 4 x four 2,200 hp (1641 kW) Wright R 3350 57 (or related) Duplex Cyclone 18 cylinder radials. Wing span: 43.05 m (141 ft 3 in). Length: 30.18 m (99 ft 0 in). Height: 9.02 m (29 ft 7 in). Wing area: 161.28 sq.m (1,736.0 sq ft). Maximum speed: 576 km/h (358 mph) at high altitudes. Service ceiling: 9750 m (32,000 ft). Range with maximum bombload: 5230 km (3,250 miles). Weight empty: 31816 kg (70,140 lb). MTOW: 64002 kg (141,100 lb). Armament: bombload of 9072 kg (20, 000 lb), plus 10 12.7 mm (0, 5 in) machine guns and one 20 mm cannon in five turrets. Crew: 10.
KB-29P Flight refuelling tanker. Engines: 4x 2,200 h.p. Wright R3350-57 or -83 Wingspan: 141 ft. 3 in Length: 99 ft. Max speed: 351 m.p.h. Ceiling: over 35,000 ft. Range: 4,600 miles
The Boeing 787 Dreamliner is a long range, mid-sized, wide-body, twin-engine jet airliner developed by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. It seats 210 to 330 passengers, depending on the variant. Boeing states that it is the company’s most fuel-efficient airliner and the world’s first major airliner to use composite materials for most of its construction. The 787 was designed to become the first production composite airliner, with the fuselage assembled in one-piece composite barrel sections instead of the multiple aluminum sheets and some 50,000 fasteners used on existing aircraft. Boeing selected two new engine types to power the 787, the General Electric GEnx and Rolls-Royce Trent 1000. The two different engine models compatible with the 787 use a standard electrical interface to allow an aircraft to be fitted with either Rolls-Royce or General Electric engines. This aims to save time and cost when changing engine types.
During the design phase the 787 underwent extensive wind tunnel testing at Boeing’s Transonic Wind Tunnel, QinetiQ’s five-meter wind tunnel at Farnborough, UK, and NASA Ames Research Center’s wind tunnel, as well as at the French aerodynamics research agency, ONERA. The final styling of the aircraft was more conservative than earlier proposals, with the fin, nose, and cockpit windows changed to a more conventional form. By the end of 2004, customer-announced orders and commitments for the 787 reached 237 aircraft. Boeing initially priced the 787-8 variant at US$120 million, a low figure that surprised the industry. In 2007, the list price was US$146–151.5 million for the 787-3, US$157–167 million for the 787-8 and US$189–200 million for the 787-9.
First offered in late 2003, the program was officially launched in April 2004. The aircraft’s initial designation 7E7 was changed to 787 in January 2005. Assembly started in 2006, the first 787 unveiled in a roll-out ceremony on July 8, 2007, at Boeing’s Everett assembly factory, by which time it had become the fastest-selling wide-body airliner in history with 677 orders. First flown in December 2009, by September 2010, 847 Boeing 787s had been ordered by 56 customers. As of 2010, launch customer All Nippon Airways has the largest number of 787s on order.
The 787 is being assembled at the Boeing Everett Factory in Everett, Washington. Aircraft will also be assembled at a new factory in North Charleston, South Carolina. Both sites will deliver 787s to airline customers. Originally planned to enter service in May 2008, the project has suffered from repeated delays and is now more than three years behind schedule. The airliner’s maiden flight took place on December 15, 2009. Boeing announced on December 16, 2003, that the 787 would be assembled in its factory in Everett, Washington. Instead of building the complete aircraft from the ground up in the traditional manner, final assembly would employ just 800 to 1,200 people to join completed subassemblies and to integrate systems. Boeing assigned its global subcontractors to do more assembly themselves and deliver completed subassemblies to Boeing for final assembly. This approach was intended to result in a leaner and simpler assembly line and lower inventory, with pre-installed systems reducing final assembly time by three-quarters to three days. Subcontracted assemblies included: wing manufacture (Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Japan, central wing box) horizontal stabilizers (Alenia Aeronautica, Italy; Korea Aerospace Industries, South Korea) fuselage sections (Global Aeronautica, Italy; Boeing, North Charleston, USA; Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Japan; Spirit AeroSystems, Wichita, USA; Korean Air, South Korea) passenger doors (Latécoère, France) cargo doors, access doors, and crew escape door (Saab, Sweden) floor beams (TAL Manufacturing Solutions Limited, India) wiring (Labinal, France) wing-tips, flap support fairings, wheel well bulkhead, and longerons (Korean Air, South Korea) landing gear (Messier-Dowty, France) power distribution and management systems, air conditioning packs (Hamilton Sundstrand, Connecticut, USA). tail (Alenia).
To speed delivery of the 787’s major components, Boeing modified several used 747-400s into 747 Dreamlifters to transport 787 wings, fuselage sections, and other smaller parts. Japanese industrial participation was very important to the project, with a 35% work share, the first time Japanese firms had taken a lead role in mass production of Boeing airliner wings, and many of the subcontractors supported and funded by the Japanese government. On April 26, 2006, Japanese manufacturer Toray Industries and Boeing announced a production agreement involving US$6 billion worth of carbon fiber, extending a 2004 contract and aimed at easing production concerns.
Boeing had originally planned for a first flight by the end of August 2007 and premiered the first 787 at a rollout ceremony on July 8, 2007, which matches the aircraft’s designation in the US-style month-day-year format (7/8/07). However, the aircraft’s major systems had not been installed at that time, and many parts were attached with temporary non-aerospace fasteners requiring their later replacement with flight fasteners. Although intended to shorten the production process, 787 subcontractors initially had difficulty completing the extra work, because they could not procure the needed parts, perform the subassembly on schedule, or both, leaving remaining assembly work for Boeing to complete as “traveled work”.
The 787 Dreamliner’s first public appearance was webcast live on July 8, 2007. Rolled out on 8 July 2007 with 677 firm orders from 47 operators, the prototype was held together largely with temporary fasteners in order to meet the date. At the time QANTAS ordered 20 more.
On September 5 Boeing announced a three-month delay, blaming a shortage of fasteners as well as incomplete software. On October 10, 2007, a second three-month delay to the first flight and a six-month delay to first deliveries was announced due to problems with the foreign and domestic supply chain, including an ongoing fastener shortage, the lack of documentation from overseas suppliers, and continuing delays with the flight guidance software. Less than a week later, Mike Bair, the 787 program manager was replaced. On January 16, 2008, Boeing announced a third three-month delay to the first flight of the 787, citing insufficient progress on “traveled work”. On March 28, 2008, in an effort to gain more control over the supply chain, Boeing announced that it planned to buy Vought Aircraft Industries’ interest in Global Aeronautica; the company later agreed to also purchase Vought’s North Charleston, S.C. factory.
On April 9, 2008, Boeing officially announced a fourth delay, shifting the maiden flight to the fourth quarter of 2008, and delaying initial deliveries by around 15 months to the third quarter of 2009. The 787-9 variant was postponed to 2012 and the 787-3 variant was to follow with no firm delivery date. On November 4, 2008, the company announced a fifth delay due to incorrect fastener installation and the Boeing machinists strike, stating that the first test flight would not occur in the fourth quarter of 2008. After assessing the 787 program schedule with its suppliers, Boeing confirmed on December 11, 2008 that the first flight would be delayed until the second quarter of 2009.
On June 15, 2009, during the Paris Air Show, Boeing said that the 787 would make its first flight within two weeks. However, on June 23, 2009, Boeing announced that the first flight is postponed “due to a need to reinforce an area within the side-of-body section of the aircraft”. Boeing provided an updated 787 schedule on August 27, 2009, with the first flight planned to occur by the end of 2009 and deliveries to begin at the end of 2010. The company expects to write off US$2.5 billion because it considers the first three Dreamliners built unsellable and suitable only for flight tests.
The first Boeing 787 underwent taxi tests at Paine Field in November and December 2009.
As Boeing worked with its suppliers on early 787 production, the aircraft design had proceeded through a series of test goals. On August 7, 2007, on-time certification of the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 engine by European and US regulators was received. On August 23, 2007, a crash test involving a vertical drop of a partial composite fuselage section from about 15 ft (4.6 m) onto a 1 in (25 mm)-thick steel plate occurred in Mesa, Arizona. The results matched what Boeing’s engineers had predicted, allowing modeling of various crash scenarios using computational analysis instead of further physical tests. On June 20, 2008, the 787 team achieved “Power On” of the first aircraft, powering and testing the aircraft’s electrical supply and distribution systems On May 3, 2009, the first test 787 was moved to the flight line following extensive factory testing, including landing gear swings, systems integration verification, and a total run through of the first flight. Boeing spent most of May 2009 conducting tests on the first 787 prototype in preparation for the first flight. On March 28, 2010 the 787 completed the ultimate wing load test which requires that the wings of a fully assembled aircraft be loaded to 150% of design limit load and held for 3 seconds. The wings were flexed approximately 25 ft (7.6 m) upward during the test.
On December 15, 2009, Boeing conducted the Dreamliner’s maiden flight with the first 787-8, originating from Snohomish County Airport in Everett, Washington at 10:27 am PST, and landing at Boeing Field in King County, Washington at 1:35 pm PST. Originally scheduled for four hours, the test flight was shortened to three hours because of bad weather.
The third Boeing 787-8 Dreamliner (N7874 c/n 40693 ZA004) joined the test programme in February 2010.
The 787 flight test program is composed of 6 aircraft, ZA001 through ZA006, four with Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 engines and two with GE GEnx-1B64 engines. The second 787, ZA002 in All Nippon Airways livery, flew to Boeing Field on December 22, 2009 to join the flight test program; the third 787, ZA004 joined the test fleet with its first flight on February 24, 2010, followed by ZA003 on March 14, 2010. On March 24, 2010, testing for flutter and ground effects was completed, clearing the aircraft to fly its entire flight envelope.
On April 23, 2010 Boeing delivered their latest 787 to a hangar at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida for extreme weather testing in temperatures ranging from 115 °F to -45 °F (46 °C to -42 °C), with all steps necessary to prepare for takeoff taken once the plane stabilizes at either temperature extreme. Dreamliner ZA005, the fifth 787 and the first with General Electric GEnx engines began ground engine tests in May 2010. ZA005 made its first flight on June 16, 2010 and joined the flight test program. In June 2010, gaps were discovered in the horizontal stabilizers of test aircraft, due to improperly installed shims; all aircraft produced then were to be inspected and repaired. The 787 made its first appearance at an international air show at the Farnborough Airshow, UK on July 18, 2010.
Boeing 787-8
As of November 8, 2010, the six 787 test aircraft had flown 2,290 hours in 735 flights combined.
On November 9, 2010, Boeing 787, ZA002 made an emergency landing after smoke and flames were detected in the main cabin during a test flight over Texas. A Boeing spokeswoman said the airliner landed safely and the crew was evacuated after landing at the Laredo International Airport, Texas. The electrical fire caused some systems to fail before landing. Following this incident, Boeing suspended flight testing on November 10, 2010. Ground testing has been performed instead. On November 22, 2010, Boeing announced that the in-flight fire can be primarily attributed to foreign object debris (FOD) that was present in the electrical bay. After electrical system and software changes, 787s returned to company flight testing on December 23, 2010.
The 787 features lighter-weight construction. Its materials (by weight) are: 50% composite, 20% aluminum, 15% titanium, 10% steel, 5% other. The craft will be 80% composite by volume. Each 787 contains approximately 35 short tons of carbon fiber reinforced plastic, made with 23 tons of carbon fiber. Aluminum is used on wing and tail leading edges, titanium used mainly on engines and fasteners, with steel used in various places.
The 787-8 is the base model of the 787 family with a length of 186 feet (57 m) and a wingspan of 197 feet (60 m) and a range of 7,650 to 8,200 nautical miles (14,200 to 15,200 km) depending on seating configuration. The 787-8 seats 210 passengers in a three class configuration. The variant will be the first of the 787 line to enter service. Boeing is targeting the 787-8 to replace the 767-200ER and 767-300ER, as well as expand into new non-stop markets where larger planes would not be economically viable. The bulk of 787 orders are for the 787-8.
In August 2011 the 787 received FAA certification for commercial operations. The first customer, All Nipon Airways was scheduled to receive the first delivery at Tokyo on 28 September, 2011 (about three years behind schedule), and orders stood at 827 aircraft (at US$185 million).
The Boeing 787-9 made its inaugural flight on 17 September 2013 at Paine Field in Everett, WA. The stretched 787 took off at 11:02 AM and completed a 5 hour and 16 minute flight, landing at Boeing Field in Seattle. During the flight, 787-9 Senior Project Pilot Mike Bryan and 787 Chief Pilot Randy Neville departed to the north, reaching an altitude of 20,400 feet and an airspeed of 250 knots, customary for a first flight. While captains Bryan and Neville tested the airplane’s systems and structures, onboard equipment transmitted real-time data to a flight-test team on the ground in Seattle.
Boeing 787-9
Powered by two Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 engines, the first 787-9 was to be joined in flight test by two additional airplanes, one with General Electric GEnx engines.
Boeing 787-3 Dreamliner Engines: 2 x General Electric OR Rolls Royce Trent 1000 turbofan, 53,000lbs thrust Length: 186.02ft (56.7m) Width: 170.60ft (52.00m) Height: 55.45ft (16.90m) Maximum Speed: 587mph (945kmh; 510kts) Maximum Range: 3,511miles (5,650km) Service Ceiling: 42,979ft (13,100m) Accommodation: 2 + 290 Empty Weight: 222,667lbs (101,000kg) Maximum Take-Off Weight: 374,786lbs (170,000kg)
787-8 Dreamliner Engines: 2 x General Electric Genx, 64,000 lbf (280 kN) or Rolls-Royce Trent 1000, 71,000 lbf (320 kN) Cockpit crew: Two Seating: 210-290 Length: 186 ft (56.7 m) Wingspan: 170 ft 6 in (52.0 m) Wing area: 3,501 sq ft (325 m2) Wing sweepback: 32.2 degrees Height: 55 ft 6 in (16.9 m) Fuselage Width: 18 ft 11 in (5.77 m) Fuselage Height: 19 ft 7 in (5.97 m) Maximum cabin width: 18 ft (5.49 m) Cargo capacity: 4,822 cu ft (137 cu.m) 28× LD3 or 9x (88×125) pallets or 8x (96×125) pallets + 2x LD3 Maximum takeoff weight: 502,500 lb (228,000 kg) Maximum landing weight: 380,000 lb (172,000 kg) Operating empty weight: 242,000 lb (110,000 kg) Cruising speed: Mach 0.85 (567 mph, 490 knots, 913 km/h at 35,000 ft/10,700 m) Maximum speed: Mach 0.89 (593 mph, 515 knots, 954 km/h at 35,000 ft/10,700 m) Range, fully loaded: 7,650–8,200 nmi (14,200–15,200 km; 8,800–9,440 mi) Maximum fuel capacity: 33,528 US gal (126,920 L) Service ceiling: 43,000 ft (13,100 m)
787-9 Dreamliner Engines: 2 x General Electric Genx, 64,000 lbf (280 kN) or Rolls-Royce Trent 1000, 71,000 lbf (320 kN) Cockpit crew: Two Seating: 210-290 Length: 206 ft (62.8 m) Wingspan: 197 ft 3 in (60.1 m) Wing area: 3,501 sq ft (325 sq.m) Wing sweepback: 32.2 degrees Height: 55 ft 6 in (16.9 m) Fuselage Width: 18 ft 11 in (5.77 m) Fuselage Height: 19 ft 7 in (5.97 m) Maximum cabin width: 18 ft (5.49 m) Cargo capacity: 6,086 cu ft (172 cu.m) 36× LD3 or 11x (88×125) pallets or 11x (96×125) pallets Maximum takeoff weight: 545,000 lb (247,000 kg) Maximum landing weight: 425,000 lb (193,000 kg) Operating empty weight: 254,000 lb (115,000 kg) Cruising speed: Mach 0.85 (567 mph, 490 knots, 913 km/h at 35,000 ft/10,700 m) Maximum speed: Mach 0.89 (593 mph, 515 knots, 954 km/h at 35,000 ft/10,700 m) Range, fully loaded: 8,000–8,500 nmi (14,800–15,700 km; 9,210–9,780 mi) Maximum fuel capacity: 33,428 US gal (126,540 L) Service ceiling: 43,000 ft (13,100 m)
In 1985, studies were centered around a 21ft (6.4m) stretch of the 767-300, dubbed the 400 (the 777 designation was first publicized in 1978, linked to proposed tri-jet versions of the 767), with the same fuel capacity, engines, and gross weight of the 767 300. A longer range development was possible, but would require “some wing work,” said Boeing. Market assessment for the derivative began late in 1986 and proceeded at a rather leisurely pace. The launch of the MD 11, followed by the A330/A340, stimulated Boeing’s efforts and by the third quarter of 1988, the manufacturer was discussing a wide range of derivatives of the 767 with airlines, grouped in three categories under the 767-X nomenclature. The least expensive proposal was a slightly stretched 767 300 which retained the existing wing, but resulted in only a modest capacity increase. A ‘maximum change’ 767 would have wing tip extensions and winglets, plus the additional of a wing root insert. The most expensive suggestion featured a completely new wing (called 767RW, or Re Wing) that would allow a significant fuselage stretch as much as 539in (44ft llin/13.69m) although the span would be such that it could pose airport gate compatibility problems. The dozen different studies included several designs with second decks, including one 9ft (2.74m) stretch with a partial upper deck aft of the wing. All of the 767 X designs would have required powerplants with increased thrust over existing 767 engines, although at the time Boeing stated that they would not need a re fanned engine, proposed by all three engine manufacturers General Electric, Pratt & Whitney, and Rolls Royce to meet the 67,500 71,000 lb st (300.2 315.8kN) requirements of Airbus for the A330. Boeing’s market research indicated that the 767 X would have to satisfy three different markets. The A Market aircraft, intended for US transcontinental, Europe Asia, and intra Asia routes, would be a 300-seater with a range of 4,000nm (7,400km). Next in significance was the B Market, aimed at the evolving North Atlantic extended-range twin jet segment (then known by the acronym EROPS, for Extended Range OperationS). The 250 seat air¬craft would have a range of 5,500nm (10,200km) and be capable of flying between secondary US and European destinations, such as Dallas Frankfurt. Finally, there was a future C Market proposal, for twin jet operations between the US West Coast and Asia, and between Europe and the Orient. This 230 seat aircraft (about the same size as a 767 300) would have a range of 7,000nm (13,000km). Boeing which traditionally had only consulted with one or two prospective launch customers invited representatives of eight airlines (All Nippon Airways, American Airlines, British Airways, Cathay Pacific Airways, Delta Air Lines, Japan Airlines, QANTAS, and United) to form a steering committee. The ‘Gang of Eight’ met regularly in Seattle, and helped to define the 767-X Several driving forces for the 767 X emerged by spring 1989, including serious interest from All Nippon and United. By then, enthusiasm for the double deck proposals had waned in favor of a new nine abreast design, retaining only the nose and tail of the 767. Re fanned engines would be a necessity, and the designation 787 was linked briefly to the aircraft which would be available from mid 1995.
On December 8,1989, Boeing’s board of directors authorized the company’s salesmen to make firm offers of a 767 X design which, when formally launched, would become the 777. The basic configuration was a wide body twin with a twin aisle cabin “wider than the 767, A330, or MD 1l,” to seat around 350 passengers in a two class layout with a range of 4,200nm (7,800km). Its wing span was considerably greater than that of the 767 300, and only slightly less than that of the 747 400. One option under study was the incorporation of folding wing tips. While the chosen design involved the highest development costs, it also allowed for the most growth in the future. This aircraft was the first fly-by-wire passenger aircraft for Boeing and many other firsts were incorporated in this aircraft, including an advanced glass cockpit, the large-scale use of composite materials, extremely powerful engines, and Boeing also used computers to design and electronically preassemble the entire airplane. The cockpit has five large 200-mm liquid-crystal, multi-function display (MFD) screens, with an additional screen on the central console panel. This MFD, along with the centre display on the panel, is used for the aircraft’s engine indication and crew alerting system (EICAS), while each pilot has two main screens in front of them which are used as primary flight displays (PFD) and the navigation displays (ND). The B777 is a true fly-by-wire aircraft. The primary flight-control system (PFCS) has two types of computers in its system: the actuator control electronics (ACE) which is primarily an analogue device, and the primary flight computer (PFC) which is digital. There are four ACEs and three PFCs and, furthermore, the PFCs have three channels for operation. The four ACEs receive the data from multiple transducers on the pilot controls and those on the primary surface actuators. This is then converted to digital and sent over the “triplex hi-directional buses” to the PFCs. These are then returned over the same buses (hi-directional remember) for the ACEs to convert these signals back into analogue commands for each actuator. The aircraft systems then operate the flight controls.
Three engine types have been offered to power the B777: the Rolls-Royce Trent 800, the Pratt & Whitney PW4000 and the General Electric GE 90. The fan diameters are incredibly large with the largest, the GE 90, measuring 3.12 metres. These engines have been rated from 74,000 lbs for the original P&W PW4074, to the largest, 98,000 lbs, of the P&W PW4098. Although a 239in (19ft llin/6.07m) cross section was studied, eventually the fuselage diameter was set at 244in (20ft 4in/6.2m), compared to 237in (19ft 9in/6.02m) for the MD 11 and 222in 08ft 6in/5.64m) for the A330/A340. Consequently, Boeing claims that the 777 offers more interior options and greater flexibility than the competition, from a six abreast first class layout with 21in (53cm) wide seats to a ten abreast economy section with ‘industry standard comfort levels’ (which translates to 17in (43cm) wide seats with a 32in (81cm) pitch). Originally, the new aircraft was to retain considerable systems commonality with the 767, but in the event only some of the cockpit structure was retained. Because of customer preference the layout of the 777’s two person flight deck is similar to that of the 747 400. However, instead of CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) screens, six flat panel Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) show flight, engine, and navigation information. In addition to saving space, LCDs weigh less, require less power, and generate less heat than CRT displays. Even the three standby gauges are LCDs; a compass is the only ‘dial’ survivor from previous generation cockpits. The aircraft’s total fuel capacity is accommodated entirely within the wing and structural centre section. Although Boeing had indicated it would prefer to have at least 100 orders for its new design, the 777 200 (there was no 100) was launched on October 29, 1990, following on the heels of an initial order for 34 (plus 34 options) from United. All Nippon took the plunge (for 15 plus 10 options) that December, the same month that a revised memorandum of understanding (MOU) was signed by Boeing, Fuji, Kawasaki, and Mitsubishi for the Japanese to assume responsibility for 20% of the airframe along with a corresponding share in the market risk and the potential rewards. The first 200 B Market order came from French charter airline Euralair the following June. The 777 is the subject of Boeing’s most extensive flight testing program ever, with no less than nine aircraft and three different engines involved. At its conclusion in June 1996, Boeing expected the test fleet to have logged 7,000hr and 4,900 cycles. The first 777 200 (registered N7771 and named Working Together) PW4077 powered made its maiden flight on June 12, 1994, in the hands of John Cashman, 777 chief pilot, and Ken Higgins, director of flight test. It has conducted aerodynamic, stability, and control testing to basic certification and will continue follow on testing until June 1996, then be refurbished for sale.
Four PW powered 222s for United had joined in the flight testing by October 1994 and have been followed by two 236s with CE90 engines for British Airways. The first two 267s for Cathay Pacific, completed in April and June 1995, respectively, were assigned to complete certification of the Rolls Royce Trent.
The initial British Airways order was for 15, plus 15 options, was placed on 21 August 1991, and at least 8 options were converted to firm commitments.
The 777-200IGW with 7230nm/8325mi/13,400km range with 267 passengers, went into British Airways service on the London-Boston route on 9 February 1997.
British Airways operated 777-200s on long-haul routes. The type was troubled with problems with the GE90-76B engines before delivery, delaying service introduction until 17 November 1995.
United accepted its first 777, appropriately registered N777UA, also the first of the type to be delivered, on May 15 1995, and this aircraft was the centerpiece of a formal delivery celebration two days later. United placed the three class 292 seat 777 into service on June 7 with a London (Heathrow) Washington (Dulles) flight. Two versions of the 777 were available: the basic -200 and the increased gross weight -2001GW, which has since been renamed the -200ER. The first Boeing 777-200 flew on 12 June 1994, and was awarded FAA and JAA certification on 19 April 1995. This longer range B777-200ER can fly more than 7,200 nm. The PW4074 powered aircraft was awarded the 180-minute ETOPS (extended twin-engine operations) in May of 1995. Ten metres longer than the 777-200, the 777-300 has dimensions that all but match the 747; seating around 550 passengers in a single class, or 368-386 passengers in three classes, with a range of over 8,500 nm. Both the -200 and -300 series have a wing span of 60.9 m, nearly identical to that of the Boeing 747-100 and -200. The -300 was rolled out on 8 September 1997, first flew on 16 October 1997 and has since gained 180-mm ETOPS approval and JAA/FAA certification. The 777-300ER first flew on 24 February 2003. As part of the test programme, the 737-300ER set a MTOW record of 774,600 lb.
In October 2005 Air New Zealand took delivery of its first 777-200ER after a delay caused by a Boeing Machinists’ strike. Air NZ had eight 777-200ERs on order.
First flying on 8 March 2005, the 777-200LR, called Worldliner, was to travel up to 9420nm / 17,450 km with 301 passengers if fitted with maximum auxiliary fuel tankage. First delivery is to Pakistan International in January 2006.
In November 2005 a 777-200LR established a new world record for distance travelled non-stop by a commercial aircraft – 11,664 nm / 21,605 km between Hong Kong and London Heathrow flying eastbound. The flight took 22 hr 42 min.
American Airlines Boeing 777-300ER
Compared to the 747-400, as ER cruises at similar speeds (0.84 Mach as compared with the 747’s 0.85 Mach) and can carry only slightly less passengers. The 777-300ER has a range of more than 7,400 nm. The aircraft has an advanced fly-by-wire flightdeck featuring lightweight liquid crystal displays, and Jeppesen’s “Electronic Flight Bag” the latest advance towards the paperless flightdeck. The B777-300ER is powered by two General Electric GE90-115B1 engines, which are capable of 115,000 lbs of thrust each. These engines include composite fan blades instead of the typical titanium blades, and the blade’s swept-design is reported to add 2,000 lbs to the engine thrust. Two prototypes undertook the 1500 hours of flight testing required for certification. The new 777-346ER has a MTOW of 759,600 lbs (344,555 kg), a range of 7,430 nautical miles (13,760 km), and two GE90-115B engines of 115,000 lbs thrust each – the world’s most powerful commercial jet engine. Differences over the standard 777 include; the wings extended by 6.5 feet, with raked tips; strengthened wings and empennage; strengthened nose undercarriage, with a new upgraded main landing gear installed; supplementary electronic tail-skid added and the nacelle struts modified to accommodate the higher thrust engines.
