After working as Lavochkin’s right hand man during World War II, Semyon Mikhailovich Alekseyev was appointed as Chief Designer of OKB-21 at Gor’kiy. The Council of the People’s Commissars directed Alekseyev (among others) to develop jet fighters using more powerful engines than the captured German examples and their Soviet-built copies. The result of Alekseyev’s efforts was the I-21 (istrebitel, fighter) which was planned to be produced in several variants.
The I-21 was a twin-engined all metal single seat jet fighter, with straight wings, mid-set on a round streamlined fuselage, and engines mounted in front of the wings at about one third span. The slightly swept tail unit was cruciform in layout with the tailplane set at approximately half-fin span with slight dihedral. The aircraft’s structure was constructed from high strength B-95 aluminium alloy, high strength steel for highly loaded parts and “Elektron” magnesium alloy for cast fittings. A hydraulically retractable tricycle undercarriage was fitted, using twin wheels for nose and main undercarriages. Hydraullically actuated airbrakes were fitted either side of the rear fuselage.
Construction of the first two airframes began at the end of 1946, with pressure from the Ministry of Aircraft Production to complete initial flight testing by 1 August 1947, to enable the aircraft to take part in the Aviation Day Flypast at Tushino on 18 August 1947. While one of the two airframes initially produced was used for static testing, the other was completed as the I-211 (I-21 version 1) with Lyul’ka TR-1 turbojet engines. (The Lyul’ka TR-2 was the intended powerplant, but was not available). Despite pressure, the I-211 was unable to participate in the Tushino display.
Flight testing started in the Autumn of 1947, but only six test flights had been carried out before the I-211 struck a pothole on landing, which collapsed the undercarriage. Repairs were carried out and the opprtunity taken to replace the TR-1 engines with Rolls-Royce Derwent V engines. The result was the I-215 which had been in development before the first flight of the I-211. Other minor modifications were carried out, the most noticeable being the larger engine nacelles. Despite good results from flight testing the I-215 lost out in production orders to the newer generation of swept winged fighters.
A third I-21 was built as the I-215D (dooblyor, second prototype), with a bicycle undercarriage, using wider-diameter paired wheels in a bicycle arrangement, retracting into the fuselage, along with small outrigger wheels under the engine nacelles which retracted into fairings, to order from OKB-1. This was used to test this arrangement for “Aircraft 150” and other projects (OKB-1 was supervised by Dr. Brunolf Baade, who later designed the VEB type 152 airliner, in the DDR, as a direct descendent of “Aircraft 150”, and indirectly of the I-215D). The main undercarriage of the I-215D also incorporated a kneeling feature which could increase the incidence of the aircraft by 3 degrees to assist take-off. Trials with this undercarriage arrangement proved successful and paved the way for its use in many other Soviet aircraft.
Armament of the I-211 comprised two, three, four, or six cannon in the chin, depending on variant.
Variants: I-210 – The initial version with Tumanskii RD-20 (BMW 003 copy) engines. Not proceeded with due to availability of Lyul’ka TR-1 engines.
I-211 – The first flyable example completed as the I-211 with Lyul’ka TR-1 engines, rebuilt as the I-215.
I-211S – I-211 with swept wing and tail.
I-215 – The re-built I-211 with Rolls-Royce Derwent V engines and other minor modifications.
I-215D – Bi-cycle undercarriage I-215 built to order of OKB-1.
I-216 – Proposed “Heavy” fighter version of the I-215 with two 75mm cannon and modified outer wings.
I-215
Specifications:
I-211 Engines: 2 × Lyul’ka TR-1 jet, 1,300kgp (2,866 lb st) Wingspan: 12.25 m (40 ft 2.28 in) Wing area: 25 sq.m (268.8 sq.ft) Length: 11.54 m (37 ft 11.9 in) Loaded weight: 6.890 kg (15,189 lb) Maximum speed: 970 K/h (524.32 mph) Ferry range: 1,550 km(962 miles) Service ceiling: 13,600 m (44,619 ft) Rate of climb: 27.78 m/s (5416 ft/min) Armament: 2 x 23mm cannon Crew: 1
The Alaparma AM-12 was a two-seat aircraft derived from the Am-8/AM-10, but with a new and larger wing to make the type suitable as powered glider. Further changes compared to the AM-8 and AM-10 were a revised u/c arrangement with small tail wheels under the twin vertical tail instead of a single tail wheel under the rear fuselage.
It was first flown on 12 November 1954 as a glider.
Later it received one 75hp Praga D engine.
The aircraft was evaluated by the Italian AF and possibly up to three or four AM-12s were built.
One of the AM-12 after having been re-engined with one 350lb Turboméca Palas turbojet engine as the AM-12P and it was flown in this form in 1962.
AM-12P
Again, the aircraft was evaluated by the Italian AF. Further development of the AM-12 was halted.
AM-12P
The aircraft established several FAI altitude records attaining 28,661ft with Praga D75 engine and 21.981ft with Palas engine.
Wingspan: 39.375 ft Length: 18.042 ft Height: 4.667 ft
A major European car ferry operator financed the development of the British Thermo Skyship, a saucer shaped airship using helium and super heated air for lift and ducted thrust from turbofan engines for vertical take off and landing and for cruise flight. A 9.14 m (30 ft) diameter model of the ship has flown, from which will be developed a Skyship car ferry capable of carrying 60 passengers and their cars from England to France at 165 kph (103 mph), and 152 and 508 tonne (150 and 500 ton) cargo carrying saucers.
After years of research Airbus decided to proceed with the 8.8 billion A380 project in 1999, the final budget settling at about 12 billion. The double-decker layout would provide higher seat capacities and, hence, cost savings over a traditional design.
Originally known as the A3XX, the A380 is a double-deck, four-engined airliner. Airbus began engineering development work in June 1994 with key design aims including the ability to use existing airport infrastructure with little modifications to the airports, and direct operating costs per seat 15-20% less than those for the 747-400. With 49% more floor space and only 35% more seating than the previous largest aircraft, Airbus is ensuring wider seats and aisles for more passenger comfort. Using the advanced technologies, the A380 is also designed to have 10-15% more range, lower fuel burn and emissions, and less noise.
The A380’s wing has been designed to cope with a MTOW of 590t, albeit with some strenghtening required, allowing for a future stretch. The stronger wing and structure is used on today’s freighter version, the A380-800F. This approach sacrifices some fuel efficiency on the initial passenger model but the sheer size of the aircraft coupled with the significant advances in technology over the years should provide lower operating costs per passenger than the 747.
With orders and options from nine customers (Air France, Emirates (the first customer), Federal Express (the cargo model launch customer), International Lease Finance Corporation, Lufthansa, Qantas, Qatar Airways, Singapore Airlines, and Virgin Atlantic), the Airbus A380 was officially launched on December 19, 2000, and production started on January 23, 2002.
The upper deck extends the entire length of the fuselage allowing for a three-class configuration to seat 555 people, up to maximum of 853 in full economy class configuration. Airbus made the cockpit layout, procedures, and handling characteristics similar to those of other Airbus aircraft to reduce crew training costs. Accordingly, the A380 features a glass cockpit and side-stick flight controller driving the airplane by fly-by-wire technology.
Airbus operates 16 manufacturing sites across Europe, most of which produce parts for the new A380 airliner. First, the front and rear sections of the fuselage are loaded on an Airbus RORO ship, Ville de Bordeaux, in Hamburg, northern Germany, and are shipped to the United Kingdom. There the huge wings, which are manufactured at Filton in Bristol and Broughton in north Wales, are transported by barge to Mostyn docks where the ship adds them to its cargo. In Saint-Nazaire, western France, the ship trades the fuselage sections from Hamburg for larger, assembled sections, some of which include the nose. The ship unloads in Bordeaux. Afterwards, the ship picks up the belly and tail sections in Cadiz, southern Spain, and delivers them to Bordeaux.
From there the A380 parts are transported by barge to Langon, and by road to an assembly hall in Toulouse. New wider roads, extra canal systems, and barges were developed to deliver the massive A380 parts. After assembly the aircraft are flown to Hamburg to be furnished and painted. Final assembly began in 2004, with first aircraft (MSN001) displayed in January 2005. The first A380 prototype was unveiled during a ceremony in Toulouse, on January 18, 2005. Its manufacturer’s serial number is 001, and is registered as F-WWOW.
The airliner took off for its maiden flight at 8:29 UTC (10:29 a.m. local time) on April 27, 2005, from runway 32L of Blagnac International Airport in Toulouse, France, taking off with a flight crew of six, 22 tons of flight test instrumentation and water ballasts.
The crew was made up of French test pilots Jacques Rosay (captain for the take-off and the initial part of the test flight) and Claude Lelaie (captain for the second part of the test flight including the landing), as well as three flight test engineers (Spanish, French, and German), and one French test flight engineer. With the recent Franco-German controversy over the leadership of EADS still fresh in mind, Airbus issued a statement to make it clear that the crew had been chosen not based on nationality, but based on competence.
The takeoff weight of the aircraft was 421 tonnes (464 US tons), or about 75 % of its maximum takeoff weight for commercial flights. This was the heaviest takeoff weight of any passenger airliner ever created. After takeoff the jet headed west toward the Bay of Biscay, then south over the northern Pyrenees Mountains and concluded with a low altitude fly-by over the town of Toulouse. The 233 minute flight involved conducting tests on its engines, hydraulics, and electronics, while the on-board test equipment recorded measurements for 150,000 different parameters and sent data back to computers on the ground.
The A380 was powered by Rolls-Royce Trent 900 engines and by mid-October 2005 had logged more than 100 flights and 350 hours in the air.
The second A380 first flew on 18 October 2005 followed by the third on 3 November.
The A380-800 has a maximum range of 15,000km (sufficient to fly from Chicago to Sydney nonstop), and a cruising speed of 1,050km/h.
The first A380 was revealed to the world in front of 4500 guests at Toulouse on 18 January 2005, dignitaries including the British and Spanish Prime Ministers, French President and German Chancellor.
In March 2006 Airbus successfully completed a passenger evacuation test of the A380 with 853 passengers, two pilots and 18 cabin crew evacuating an aircraft well within the required 90 seconds. The test was conducted in darkness and with half of the doors inoperative. The doors were not known in advance.
The Airbus A380 reached 1000 flying hours, the first aircraft reaching the milestone during a flight test on 27 April 2006. In December 2006 the A380 was awarded joint US and European certification.
Sixteen airlines had ordered the A380 as of June 18, 2005, including an order from AIG’s aircraft leasing unit, ILFC. A380 orders standing at 159, included 27 freighter versions. Break-even was estimated to be at 250 to 300 units. Airbus CEO, Noel Forgeard, had said he expected to sell 750 of the aircraft. Official prices have been withheld but it was estimated at $264 million.
Interestingly, the A380’s horizontal stabilizer measures 30.4 meters (100 feet), during takeoff the A380 wings flex upward by more than 4 meters (13 feet), and the external paint (primer and topcoat) on an A380 weighs 531 kg (1,171 lbs).
A380 F-WXXL cn002 at Sydney November 2006 after non-stop route proving from Johannesburg via the South Pole.
The first A380 commercial service was flown on 25 October 2007 with Singapore Airlines 9V-SKA.
First commercial flight
As launch customer for the A380-800F FedEx Express was to take delivery of three aircraft each in 2008, 2009 and 2010 followed by one in 2011.
After producing 251 A380s, production ended in 2021.
A380-800 Engines: 4 x Engine Alliance GP7270 or Rolls-Royce Trent 970/B turbofan, 72,000-84,000lb thrust Wing span: 79.8m / 261ft 10in Length: 73m / 239ft 6in Height: 24,1 m / 79ft 1in Operating weight empty: 275,000kg / 606,000lb Maximum Take-Off Weight: 1,234,589lbs (560,000kg) Maximum Speed: 634mph (1,020kmh; 551kts) Max cruising speed: M 0.88 / 903 kmh / 561 mph Long range cruising speed M 0.85 Maximum Range: 9,445miles (15,200km) Initial climb rate: 2,300 fpm Service Ceiling: 43,028ft (13,115m) Seats: 555 Cargo capacity: 38 LD3s or 13 pallets. Crew: 2
A380-800HGW Max takeoff weight: 560,000kg / 1,235,000lb Max cruising speed M 0.88 Long range cruising speed M 0.85 Range 15,100km / 8,150nm Service ceiling: FL430 Crew: 2
A350-941 F-WXWB during its maiden flight on 14 June 2013
The A350 was originally conceived in 2004 with new aerodynamics and engines while having a fuselage based on the A330. This was rejected by some prospective customers.
The original version of the A350 superficially resembled the A330 due to its common fuselage cross-section and assembly. A new wing, engines and a horizontal stabiliser were to be coupled with new composite materials and production methods applied to the fuselage to make the A350 an almost all-new aircraft. On 10 December 2004, the boards of EADS and BAE Systems, then the shareholders of Airbus, gave Airbus an “authorisation to offer (ATO)”, and formally named it the A350.
The A350 was planned to be a 250- to 300-seat twin-engine wide-body aircraft derived from the design of the existing A330. Under this plan, the A350 would have modified wings and new engines, while sharing the same fuselage cross-section as its predecessor. As a result of a controversial design, the fuselage was to consist primarily of Al-Li, rather than the carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) fuselage on the 787. It was to see entry in two versions: the A350-800 capable of flying 8,800 nmi (16,300 km) with typical passenger capacity of 253 in three-class configuration and the 300-seat (3-class) A350-900 with 7,500 nmi (13,900 km) range. It was designed to be a direct competitor to the 787-9, and 777-200ER. Development costs were projected to be €12 billion (US$15 billion or £10 billion).
Airbus faced criticism on the A350 project from the heads of two of their largest customers, International Lease Finance Corporation (ILFC) and GE Capital Aviation Services (GECAS). Called “a Band-aid reaction to the 787”, and “Having gone through the trouble of designing a new wing, tail, cockpit” and adding advanced new materials, Airbus “should have gone the whole hog and designed a new fuselage.” Airbus responded by stating they were considering improvements for the A350 to satisfy customer demands.
In 2006, Airbus renamed it the A350 XWB (extra wide body). The A350 is the first Airbus with both fuselage and wing structures made primarily of carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer. It can carry 250 to 350 passengers in a typical three-class seating layout, or maximum seating of 440 to 550 passengers, depending on variant. There was some previous speculation that the revised aircraft would be called the Airbus A370 or A280, with Airbus going as far as accidentally publishing an advertisement referring to the model as the “A280” on the Financial Times’s website.
On 13 June 2005 at the Paris Air Show, Middle Eastern carrier Qatar Airways announced that they had placed an order for 60 A350s. In September 2006 the airline signed a memorandum of understanding with General Electric to launch the GEnx-1A-72 for the aircraft. Emirates sought a more improved design and decided against ordering the initial version of the A350, then placed an order for A350 XWBs in 2007.
In 2006 Singapore Airlines announced an agreement to order 20 A350XWBs with options for another 20 A350XWBs.
The proposed new A350 was a new design also including a wider fuselage cross-section. The new A350 fuselage allows seating arrangements ranging from an 8-abreast low-density premium economy layout to a 10-abreast high-density seating configuration, allowing for a maximum seating capacity of 440–550 depending on variant. All A350 passenger models will have a range of at least 8,000 nmi (15,000 km). The redesigned composite fuselage provides higher cabin pressure and humidity, and lower maintenance costs.
On 1 December 2006, the Airbus board of directors approved the industrial launch of the A350-800, -900 and -1000 variants. First delivery for the A350-900 was scheduled for mid-2013, with the −800 and −1000 following on 12 and 24 months later, respectively. At a 4 December 2006 press conference, a few new technical details of the A350 XWB design were revealed, but no new customers were identified. Airbus indicated existing A350 contracts were under re-negotiation due to increases in prices compared to the original A350s contracted.
The change to the XWB design imposed a two-year delay into the original timetable and increased development costs from US$5.3 billion (€5.5B) to approximately US$10 billion (€9.7B). As as result the flight test schedule was compressed from the original 15 months to 12 months. A350 programme chief Didier Evrard stressed that the delays only affect the A350-900 and that the -800 and -1000 schedules remain unchanged.
Airbus confirmed in early September 2007 the adoption of composite fuselage frames for the aircraft structure. The composite frames will feature aluminium strips to ensure the electrical continuity of the fuselage (for dissipating lightning strikes). Airbus was to use a full mock up fuselage to develop the wiring, a different approach from the A380, on which the wiring was all done on computers.
Rolls-Royce agreed with Airbus to supply a new variant of the Trent engine for the A350 XWB, named Trent XWB. After the low-speed wind tunnel test, Airbus froze the static thrust at sea level for all three proposed variants in the 330–420 kN (74,000–94,000 lbf) range in 2010.
In January 2008, French-based Thales Group won the US$2.9 billion (€2 billion) 20-year contract to supply avionics and navigation equipment for the A350 XWB. US-based Rockwell Collins and Moog Inc were chosen to supply the horizontal stabiliser actuator and primary flight control actuation, respectively.
Airbus constructed 10 new factories in Western Europe and the US, with extensions carried out on 3 further sites. Among the new buildings was a £570 million (US$760 million or €745 million) composite facility in Broughton, Wales, which would be responsible for the wings. In June 2009, the National Assembly for Wales announced provision of a £28 million grant to provide a training centre, production jobs and money toward the new production centre. Another new construction facility was the composite rudder plant in China, which was opened in early 2011.
Airbus manufactured the first structural component in December 2009 and production of the first fuselage barrel began in late 2010 at its production plant in Illescas, Spain.
The forward fuselage of the first A350 aircraft was delivered to the factory on 29 December 2011. Final assembly of the first A350 static test model was started on 5 April 2012. Final assembly of the first flight-test A350 was completed in December 2012.
On 2 June 2013, Airbus powered up the Rolls-Royce Trent XWB engines on the A350 aircraft for the first time. The A350’s maiden flight took place on 14 June 2013 from the Toulouse-Blagnac Airport. As of December 2013, Airbus had received orders for 812 aircraft from 39 customers.
On 11 June 2014, Emirates cancelled an order for 70 A350s (50 A350-900s and 20 A350-1000s), which represented 9% of the A350 production backlog. Emirates president Tim Clark said that the airline was frustrated with the development of the A350-1000, including changes to the A350-1000 engines which were previously shared with the A350-900.
The A350 XWB is made out of 53% composites, 19% Al/Al-Li, 14% titanium, 6% steel and 8% miscellaneous.
October 2008 was the Airbus internal goal to freeze the design and Airbus expects 10% lower airframe maintenance cost and 14% lower empty seat weight than competing aircraft.
The new XWB fuselage has a constant width from door 1 to door 4. The double-lobe (ovoid) fuselage cross-section will have a maximum outer diameter of 5.97 m (19.6 ft), and internal diameter of 5.61 m (18.4 ft) wide at armrest level. It allows for an eight-abreast 2–4–2 arrangement in a premium economy layout, with the seats being 49.5 cm (19.5 in) wide between 5 cm (2.0 in) wide arm rests. In the nine-abreast, 3–3–3 standard economy layout, the XWB’s seat width is 45 cm (18 in). Overall, Airbus promises passengers more headroom, larger overhead storage space and wider panoramic windows than current Airbus models.
The A350 features new composite wings with a wingspan that is common to the three proposed variants. With an area of 443 m2 (4,770 sq ft), the wingspan is 64.8 m (213 ft). The wing tip will not have Airbus’ traditional wingtip fences, but instead will curve upwards over the final 4.4 metres (14 ft) in a “sabre-like” shape. The wing has a 31.9° sweep angle, helping to increase typical cruise speed to Mach 0.85 and maximum operating speed to Mach 0.89. The A350-1000 have a wing design with about a 4% increase in surface area.
A trailing-edge high-lift system has been adopted with an advanced dropped-hinge flap (similar to that of the A380), which permits the gap between the trailing edge and the flap to be closed with the spoiler. The wings are produced in a new £400M/46,000 square metres (500,000 sq ft) North Factory at Airbus Broughton, employing 650 workers, in a specialist facility constructed with £29M of support from the Welsh Assembly Government.
The XWB’s nose section configuration is derived from the A380 with a forward-mounted nosegear bay and a six-panel flightdeck windscreen. This differs substantially from the four-window arrangement in the original design and enables overhead crew rest areas to be installed further forward and eliminate any encroachment in the passenger cabin. The windscreen was revised to improve vision by reducing the width of the centre post. The upper shell radius of the nose section was increased.
The cockpit adopted 38 cm (15 in) LCD screens. The six-screen configuration having two central displays mounted one above the other (the lower one above the thrust levers) and a single (for each pilot) primary flight/navigation display, with an adjacent on-board information system screen. The A350 XWB also features a head-up display.
The Trent XWB family has two basic engines to power the three A350 variants. The baseline 370 kN (83,000 lbf) thrust version for the A350-900 derated to 330 kN (74,000 lbf) and 350 kN (79,000 lbf) for the −800, upgraded 432 kN (97,000 lbf) thrust version to power the A350-1000. The higher-thrust version will have some modifications to the fan module—it will be the same diameter but will run slightly faster and have a new fan blade design—and run at increased temperatures allowed by new materials technologies from Rolls-Royce’s research. The basic 248 t MTOW −800 was to be offered with a 330 kN (74,000 lbf) sea-level-thrust rating, while the 279 t MTOW option to have 350 kN (79,000 lbf) thrust. Airbus also planed to offer a ‘hot and high’ rating option for Middle Eastern launching customers Qatar Airways, Emirates, and Etihad. This option had an increased thrust of 350 kN (79,000 lbf) at higher altitudes and temperatures.
Engine thrust-reversers and nacelles will be supplied by US-based UTC Aerospace Systems. The A350 XWB features a 1,268 kW (1,700 shp) Honeywell HGT1700 auxiliary power unit. Honeywell has also supplyed the air management system: the bleed air, environmental control, cabin pressure control and supplemental cooling systems. The ram-air turbine supplied by Hamilton Sundstrand and located in the lower surface of the fuselage. The generator requirement for the ram air turbine is 100 kVA.
In light of the Boeing 787 Dreamliner battery problems, in February 2013 Airbus decided to revert from Lithium-ion to the proven Nickel-cadmium technology although the flight test programme continued with the Lithium-Ion battery systems.
Each main undercarriage leg is attached to the rear wing spar forward and to a gear beam aft, which itself is attached to the wing and the fuselage. To help reduce the loads further into the wing, a double side-stay configuration was adopted.
Airbus devised a three-pronged main undercarriage design philosophy encompassing both four- and six-wheel bogies to ensure it can keep the pavement loading within limits. The A350-800 and A350-900 will both have four-wheel bogies, although the −800’s were be slightly shorter to save weight. Both fit in the same 4.1 m (13 ft) long bay. The proposed higher weight variant, the A350-1000 (and the A350-900R, which is being proposed to British Airways, with −900 size but with sufficient fuel capacity to allow nonstop London-Sydney flights) was to use a six-wheel bogey, with a 4.7 m (15 ft) undercarriage bay. French-based Messier-Dowty provide the main undercarriage for the −800 and −900 variant, and UTC Aerospace Systems will supply the −1000 variant. The nose gear will be supplied by Liebherr-Aerospace.
Airbus A350 (MSN001)
Variants Three variants of the A350 were launched in 2006. In July 2012, the A350-900 was scheduled to enter service in the second half of 2014; then the −800 in mid-2016, and −1000 in 2017.
A350-900 The A350-900 is the first A350 model and seats 314 passengers in a three-class cabin and 9-abreast layout. It has a standard design range target of 15,000 km (8,100 nmi). Airbus says that the A350-900 will have a decrease of 16% MWE per seat, a 30% decrease in block fuel per seat and 25% better cash operating cost than the Boeing 777-200ER. The −900 is designed to compete with the Boeing 777-200ER and replace the Airbus A340-300. The −900R variant would feature the higher engine thrust, strengthened structure and undercarriage of the −1000. Range of the A350-900R was estimated to 17,600 km (9,500 nmi), which would be boosted to about 19,100 km (10,315 nmi) by design improvements and be capable of non-stop flight from London-Heathrow to Auckland. The −900F freighter variant has also been proposed.
A350-1000 The A350-1000 has an 11-frame stretch over the −900 and was to enter service after the −800. It is the largest variant of the A350 family and was is to seat 350 passengers in a three-class cabin and 9-abreast configuration. It was to have a range of 15,600 km (8,400 nmi). The A350-1000 will feature a slightly larger wing than the −800/900 models; a trailing-edge extension increasing its area by 4%. This will extend the high-lift devices and the ailerons, making the chord bigger by around 400 mm, optimising flap lift performance as well as cruise performance. These and other engineering upgrades are necessary so that the −1000 model does not suffer a reduction in range.
Airbus has successfully performed certification testing to demonstrate the A350 XWB’s ability to operate on wet runways in May 2014.
A350-900 MSN4
During water-ingestion tests at Istres-Le Tubé Air Base in the south of France, MSN4, one of the flight-test Airbus A350-900 jets, traveled through a trough containing at least a 22-millimeter (0.9-inch) depth of water.
The A350-900 traveled through the trough at a variety of speeds, starting at 60 knots (111 kilometers per hour) and successively increasing to around 140 knots (259 kilometers per hour). This pool measured 100 meters (328 feet) long by 29 meters (95 feet) wide.
The aircraft performed several runs in order to test various situations, including the use of reverse thrust while passing through the water trough.
The first four A350-900s had together accumulated around 1,600 flight-test hours and more than 350 flights by May 2014. A fifth aircraft, MSN5, was to join the flight-test fleet in weeks.
Preliminary A350-800 Cockpit crew: Two Seating, typical: 440 (maximum) Overall length: 60.54 m (198.6 ft) Wingspan: 64.8 m (213 ft) Wing area: 443 m2 (4,770 sq ft) Wing sweepback: 31.9° Overall height: 17.05 m (55.9 ft) Fuselage width: 5.96 m (19.6 ft) Seat width: 18.0 in (45.7 cm) std 9 abreast / 16.4 in (41.7 cm) 10 abreast high density economy Fuselage height: 6.09 m (20.0 ft) Cabin width: 5.61 m (18.4 ft) Maximum takeoff weight: 259 t (571,000 lb) Maximum landing weight: 193 t (425,000 lb) Maximum zero fuel weight: 181 t (399,000 lb) Manufacturer’s empty weight: 115.7 t (255,100 lb) Maximum cargo capacity: 28 LD3 or 9 pallets Cruise speed: M 0.85 (903 km/h, 561 mph, 487 kts, at 40,000 ft Maximum cruise speed: M 0.89 (945 km/h, 587 mph, 510 kts, at 40,000 ft Maximum range with pax: 15,300 km (8,260 nmi) Maximum fuel capacity: 129,000 l (34,100 US gal) Service ceiling: 43,100 ft (13,100 m) Engines: 2× RR Trent XWB Maximum thrust: 351 kN (79,000 lbf)
Preliminary A350-900 Engines: 2× RR Trent XWB Maximum thrust: 374 kN (84,000 lbf) Cockpit crew: Two Seating: 440 (maximum) Overall length: 66.89 m (219.5 ft) Wingspan: 64.8 m (213 ft) Wing area: 443 m2 (4,770 sq ft) Wing sweepback: 31.9° Overall height: 17.05 m (55.9 ft) Fuselage width: 5.96 m (19.6 ft) Seat width: 18.0 in (45.7 cm) std 9 abreast / 16.4 in (41.7 cm) 10 abreast high density economy Fuselage height: 6.09 m (20.0 ft) Cabin width: 5.61 m (18.4 ft) Maximum takeoff weight: 268 t (591,000 lb) Maximum landing weight: 205 t (452,000 lb) Maximum zero fuel weight: 192 t (423,000 lb) Manufacturer’s empty weight: 115.7 t (255,100 lb) Maximum cargo capacity: 36 LD3 or 11 pallets Cruise speed: M 0.85 (903 km/h, 561 mph, 487 kts, at 40,000 ft Maximum cruise speed: M 0.89 (945 km/h, 587 mph, 510 kts, at 40,000 ft Maximum range with pax: 14,350 km (7,750 nmi) Maximum fuel capacity: 138,000 l (36,500 US gal) Service ceiling: 43,100 ft (13,100 m)
Preliminary A350-1000 Engines: 2× RR Trent XWB Maximum thrust: 431 kN (97,000 lbf) Cockpit crew: Two Seating: 475 (maximum) Overall length: 73.88 m (242.4 ft) Wingspan: 64.8 m (213 ft) Wing area: ~460 m2 (5,000 sq ft) Wing sweepback: 31.9° Overall height: 17.05 m (55.9 ft) Fuselage width: 5.96 m (19.6 ft) Seat width: 18.0 in (45.7 cm) std 9 abreast / 16.4 in (41.7 cm) 10 abreast high density economy Fuselage height: 6.09 m (20.0 ft) Cabin width: 5.61 m (18.4 ft) Maximum takeoff weight: 308 t (679,000 lb) Maximum landing weight: 233 t (514,000 lb) Maximum zero fuel weight: 220 t (485,000 lb) Manufacturer’s empty weight: 115.7 t (255,100 lb) Maximum cargo capacity: 44 LD3 or 14 pallets Cruise speed: M 0.85 (903 km/h, 561 mph, 487 kts, at 40,000 ft Maximum cruise speed: M 0.89 (945 km/h, 587 mph, 510 kts, at 40,000 ft Range with pax: 14,800 km (7,990 nmi) Maximum fuel capacity: 156,000 l (41,200 US gal) Service ceiling: 43,100 ft (13,100 m)
Lufthansa exercised a decisive influence on the basic parameters, such as passenger capacity, range and engine choice, and, together with Air France, became the launch customer. Lufthansa first opted for the longer range, shorter fuselage A340-200, but soon supplemented them with the higher capacity extended fuselage A340-300.
Launched simultaneously in June 1987 with the A330, the A340-300 first flew on 25 October 1991 and the type entered service with both Lufthansa and Groupe Air France on 1 March 1993 accommodating 250-440 passengers. Sharing near identical systems, airframe, cockpit and wings with the A330, the twin-engine A330-300 is the same length as the A340-300 The four-engined A340-300 is the standard fuselage long-range aircraft (seating 295 with a range of 6,750 nm), while the A340-200, which first flew on 1 April 1992, is 4.27 m shorter (260 seats) and is an ultra-long-range version (7,550 nm). Airbus’s ultra-long-range A340-500 has been granted type certification by the European Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA). The aircraft, which has a shorter fuselage and a longer range than the A340-600, first flew on 11 February 2002 and since then the two test aircraft have accumulated some 400 flight hours in more than 150 flights during the certification campaign. The -500 is capable of flights ranging over 8,650 nm and both the -500 and -600 versions of the A340 are powered by Roll-Royce’s Trent 500 engines. The first aircraft was scheduled for delivery to Air Canada in early 2003. The A340-600 is a long range, high capacity model, first flown on 23 April 2001. The -600 utilises LCD displays and taxi cameras.
A340-600
Lufthansa was the first operator of the Airbus A340. It first flew the Airbus A340-200 in 1993, later retiring all eight of its examples by 2003. It’s also the largest operator of the A340-300, still flying in 2025 17 out of the 30 examples it took, and ordered 24 Airbus A340-600s, though only eight of these still fly for the German flag carrier.
Airbus prepared a corporate A340-600 for the Saudi Arabian oil company the Saad Group with a range of 8500 nm / 15,745 km carrying 90 passengers.
A340-200 Engines: 4 x GE/SNECMA CFM56, 32,200 lb thrust Length: 195 ft Wingspan: 198 ft MTOW: 566,590 lb Max Ldg wt: 399,00 lb Payload: 95,000 lb Full load range: 7350nm
A340 211 Engines: 4 x CFM56 5C2F
A340-300 Engines: 4 x CFM-56-5-C4, 34,000 lb thrust Max ramp wt: 275.5 tonnes MTOW: 275 tonnes Vmq: 350 kt / M 0.86
A340-300 Engines: 4 x CFM International CFM56-5C-2 turbofans, 138.8kN Wingspan: 58.65 m / 192 ft 5 in Length: 63.65 m / 208 ft 10 in Height: 1.74 m / 5 ft 9 in Wing area: 361.6 sq.m / 3892.23 sq ft Take-off weight: 251000 kg / 553363 lb Empty weight: 125500 kg / 276682 lb Max. speed: 910 km/h / 565 mph Range: 12325 km / 7659 miles Crew: 2 Passengers: 335
A340-500 Engines: 4 x Rolls-Royce Trent 500
A340-600 Engines: 4 x Rolls-Royce Trent 500 Length: 247 ft Range: 7500 km
The A340 and A330 were launched simultaneously in June 1987, sharing near identical systems, airframe, cockpit and wings. The A330 is a medium/extended-range wide-body airliner for 295-440 passengers, first flown on 2 November 1992.
Air Lingus leased three A330s from ILFC with the first two arriving in Dublin on 11 May 1994, and the third on 17 November 1994. Two more were acquired direct from Airbus in 1995 and 1997.
The A330-200 was launched on 24 November 1995 and is a longer-range (11,800 km) and shorter (by 5.33m) version of the A330-300, with the two aircraft having identical airframe, flight deck, wing and systems design. Designed to carry 256 passenger, the -200 has an additional centre fuel tank and an enlargened horizontal and vertical tail. First flown on 13 August 1997, and powered by CF6 engines, followed by a Pratt & Whitney PW4168 powered model on 4 December 1997.
A330-200s were converted to KC-30 inflight refuelling tankers.
In April 2006 the first RAAF Airbus A330-200 MRTT recorded its maiden flight. It was delivered to the EADS CASA facility near Madrid in May for installation of its aerial refuelling and associated systems. Five A330 MRTTs were on order for the RAAF. The first RAAF KC-30B flew after conversion in July 2007.
The twin-engine A330-300 is the same length as the A340-300, and, as it was developed simultaneously with the A340, its maiden flight was only about one year later on 2 November 1992.
A330 Engines: 2 x General Electric CF6-80C2 turbofans, 291.4kN Wingspan: 58.65 m / 192 ft 5 in Length: 62.56 m / 205 ft 3 in Height: 16.74 m / 54 ft 11 in Wing area: 361.6 sq.m / 3892.23 sq ft Take-off weight: 208000 kg / 458564 lb Empty weight: 115300 kg / 254194 lb Cruise speed: 910 km/h / 565 mph Range: 9000 km / 5592 miles Crew: 2 Passengers: 328
A330-200 Engines: 2 x General Electric CF6-80E1A4
A330-300 Engines: 2 x General Electric CF6-80E1A2, 64,000 lb thrust Wingspan: 197 ft 10 in Length: 209 ft Height: 55 ft 2 in Wing area: 3908.4 sq.ft MTOW: 467,380 lb Empty wt: 271,625 lb Max cruise: 475 kt Econ cruise: 464 kt Range (335 pax and res): 4500 nm Operating empty wt: 120,311 lb Crew: 2 Max pax: 440 Max payload: 32 LD3 container or 11 pallets
A330-300 Engines: 2 x Pratt & Whitney PW4164, 64,000 lb thrust Wingspan: 197 ft 10 in Length: 209 ft Height: 55 ft 2 in Wing area: 3908.4 sq.ft Operating empty wt: 265,240 lb MTOW: 467,380 lb Empty wt: 271,625 lb Max cruise: 475 kt Econ cruise: 464 kt Range (335 pax and res): 4550 nm Crew: 2 Max pax: 440 Max payload: 32 LD3 container or 11 pallets
A330-300 Engines: 2 x Rolls-Royce Trent 768, 68,000 lb thrust Max cruise: 475 kt Econ cruise: 464 kt Range (335 pax and res): 4640 nm Operating empty wt: 263,391 lb Wingspan: 197 ft 10 in Length: 209 ft Height: 55 ft 2 in Wing area: 3908.4 sq.ft Crew: 2 Max pax: 440 Max payload: 32 LD3 container or 11 pallets
A330-342 Engines: 2 x Rolls-Royce Trent 772, 72,000 lb. MTOW: 212,000 kg. Crew: 16. Pax cap: 318.
A330-Long Range Engines: 2 x Pratt & Whitney PW4174, 74,000 lb thrust Wingspan: 197 ft 10 in Length: 209 ft Height: 55 ft 2 in Wing area: 3908.4 sq.ft Empty wt: 272,242 lb MTOW: 491,630 lb Max cruise: 475 kt Econ cruise: 464 kt Range (335 pax and res): 5300 nm Crew: 2 Max pax: 440 Max payload: 32 LD3 container or 11 pallets
A330-Long Range Engines: 2 x Rolls-Royce Trent 775, 75,000 lb thrust Wingspan: 197 ft 10 in Length: 209 ft Height: 55 ft 2 in Wing area: 3908.4 sq.ft MTOW: 491,630 lb Max cruise: 475 kt Econ cruise: 464 kt Range (335 pax and res): 5300 nm Crew: 2 Max pax: 440 Max payload: 32 LD3 container or 11 pallets
KC-30A Engines: 32,659kg thrust Wingspan: 60.3m Length: 58.8m Height: 17.4m Maximum take-off weight: 233 tonnes Maximum landing weight: 180 tonnes
In November 1989 Airbus announced a stretched version of the A320-200, the A321 with a 44.51m long fuselage, a range of up to 5500km, and 186 to 220 passengers in a two-class layout.
The major change is the stretched fuselage, with forward and rear fuselage plugs totalling 22ft 10in (6.94 m), and strengthening of the undercarriage for higher weights, more powerful engines, a simplified and refined fuel system and larger tyres for better braking. A slightly modified wing with double slotted flaps and modifications to the flight controls allow the A321’s flying characteristics to closely resemble the A320’s. The A321 features an identical flightdeck to that on the A319 and A320.
The first large commercial post-war aircraft and first Airbus to be assembled in its entirety in Germany. Lufthansa contracted for 20 aircraft on 5 July 1990 and took delivery of the first IAE V2530-AS-powered A321-100 on 27 January 1994.
The A321, 186-passenger stretch of the A320, was rolled out formally at the Deutsche Aerospace Airbus works on 3 March 1993 and made its first flight eight days later. The aircraft, powered by two IAE V2500s, took off from Hamburg on a 4 hr 40 min flight.
A321 roll-out
The A321 made its maiden flight in March 1993, and revenue service operations began in early 1994.
Air Lingus signed an agreement for four A321-200s in November 1997.
DRDO, the research and development organization of the Indian Ministry of Defense, acquired six Airbus A321s from Air India. DRDO was to convert three of them into Netra (Eyes) MkII AEW&C jets. These will be improved versions of the home-grown AEW&C system fitted on Embraer ERJ 145 platforms that India procured from Brazil. Two aircraft will be modified for the SIGINT/COMINT role. One aircraft is named ‘Anusandhan’ (Experiment) by the DRDO and will be used for testing technologies and sensors. The aircraft will be fitted with radars and sensors by the DRDO. Before that, the aircraft will be sent to France for refurbishment as per the IAF and the DRDO specifications. The whole project was expected to cost around Rs. 1.4 billion.
D-AVZO Airbus Industrie Airbus A321neo
A321 Engines: 2 x CFM56-5B/P, 133-146kN Take-off weight: 83000-93000 kg / 182985 – 205031 lb Empty weight: 48100 kg / 106043 lb Payload: 23400-25600kg / 51588 – 56439 lb Wingspan: 34.1 m / 111 ft 11 in Length: 44.5 m / 145 ft 12 in Height: 11.8 m / 38 ft 9 in Wing area: 122 sq.m / 1313.20 sq ft Max. speed: 0.82M Cruise speed: 0.78M Range: 4150-5500 km / 2579 – 3418 miles Crew: 2 Passengers: 185-220
Engines: 2 x International Aero Engines V2530-A5, 25,000 lb thrust Wingspan: 111 ft 9.5 in Length: 146 ft Height: 38 ft 8.5 in Wing area: 1320 sq.ft Operating empty wt: 104,997 lb MTOW: 182,984 lb Max pax: 220 Max payload: 44,100 lb Fuel cap: 23,858 lt Max cruise: 488 kt Econ cruise: 447 kt Max speed: 0.82M / 320 kt Service ceiling: 39,000 ft Range (186 pax and res): 2350 nm Crew: 2
Engines: 2 x CFM56-5B1 (or -5B2 option), 29,000 lb thrust (option 31,000 lb thrust) Operating empty wt: 104,746 lb MTOW: 182,984 lb Max cruise: 488 kt Econ cruise: 447 kt Range (186 pax and res): 4260 nm Wingspan: 111 ft 9.5 in Length: 146 ft Height: 38 ft 8.5 in Wing area: 1320 sq.ft Crew: 2 Max pax: 220 Max payload: 44,100 lb
Airbus A321LR Length: 146 ft (44.51 m) Height: 38.6 ft (11.76 m) Cabin Width: 156 in (3.95 m) Max Payload: 51,509 lb. (23,364 kg) Range: 4,000nm (7400km) Maximum seating: 206
Essentially an all-new design the A320 was first launched on 23 March 1984, and developed around a digital fly-by-wire flight control system with sidestick controllers, and a gust alleviation function for a smoother ride and greater fatigue life. The roll out of the A320 took place on 14 February 1987 and the aircraft made its first flight on 22 February 1987 from Toulouse with CFM56 engines. European certification followed 12 months later and Air France took the first delivery on 28 March 1988 and began service in April 1988. The A320 has seating for 150 to 179 passengers and the ability to take standard baggage containers. The type was certificated in 1989 for operations with the IAE V2500 high technology engine.
The A320 was ordered by launch customer, British Caledonian, in 1984, and entered the British Airways fleet after the takeover of British Caledonian in April 1988. Ten were in British Airways service, five of the initial A320-100 and five A320-200.
Initially the A320-100 was completed as a low gross weight aircraft, but Airbus introduced the A320-200 aircraft, with wing tip fences, a wing centre section fuel tank, and a higher MTOW. This boosted maximum range to 2,865 nm and in the end only 21 A320-100s were built. In June 1993 Airbus also decided to move the A320 family production line from Toulouse, France, to Hamburg, Germany.
In 2001, in his association with the directorship of RMI Titanium Co, Neil Armstrong flew an A320 at Airbus’s headquarters in Toulouse, France.
The 124-145 seat A319 followed the A321, in June 1993. A shortened fuselage (by 3.77 m) version of the A320 with a standard two-class cabin configuration and a range of up to 6500km with payload.
Essentially a seven-frame shrink of the A320 (it was originally designated the A320M-7), the A319 retains the wing of the A320, but the inboard spoilers are deleted. The cockpit and flight characteristics are identical to the A320 and its stretched derivative, the A321, which allows for Cross Crew Qualification. The A319 was launched officially in June 1993, although International Lease Finance Corp (ILFC) had already announced an order for six (plus two options) during the previous December. Two of these were placed with Swissair, which, in March 1994, became the first airline to place a firm order for the A319. The A319, assembled by Daimler-Benz Aerospace Airbus at Hamburg-Finkenwerder, was first flown on August 25, 1995, and was certificated by the European Joint Airworthiness Authorities (JAA) on April 10, 1996. 96 of the first 120 A319s ordered were to be powered by the CFM International CFM56-5. Flight certification tests of the international Aero Engines V2500-powered A319, which will be delivered to United, started on May 22 1996.
A319-115CJ 9H-SNA
The introduction of the A319 spelled the end of the Lufthansa Boeing 737s. According to Lufthansa, the CFM56-powered A319 consumes 58% less fuel per passenger seat than the 737-200 and 10% less than the bigger 737-300. By 1 July 1977 Lufthansa had taken delivery of 10 A319s, with 10 on order.
Based on the A319, the ACJ (Airbus Corporate Jet) differs mainly in having up to six extra fuel tanks in its cargo hold as well as a higher ceiling of 41,000 ft.
May 2000
Airbus announced its Airbus Corporate Jet (ACJ) at the 1997 Paris Air Show, based on the A319 airliner, the ACJ has a maximum range of 6000 nm / 11,115 km when fitted with six auxiliary fuel tanks. The auxiliary tanks are quickly removable and replaceable due to the A319/ACJ’s outwards opening cargo doors and quick release fuel plumbing and electrical Connections. They can be removed or replaced in as little as two hours. The ACJ was offered with both A319 powerplant options – the IAE V2500 or CFM56. The first ACJ flew on 12 November 1998, the 913th example of the A320 family off the line. It was delivered to Jet Aiation in Switzerland for outfitting the following month and handed over to its new owner – Mohamed Abdulmoshin Al Kharafi of Kuwait – a year later.
Airbus delivered corporate/VIP variations on the A320 theme including the A319LR with comfortable trans-Atlantic range carrying 48 business class passengers, and the A319 Executive which is basically the airliner with a VIP interior but no additional fuel.
All Aero 